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Org B - LA 2
Definitions
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Stress | a psychological response to demands that possess certain stakes for the person and that tax or exceed the person’s capacity or resources |
| Stressors | The demands that cause people to experience stress |
| Strains | Negative consequences that occur when demands tax or exceed a person’s capacity or resources |
| Transactional Theory of Stress | explains how stressors are perceived and appraised, as well as how people respond to those perceptions and appraisals |
| Primary Appraisal | occurs as people evaluate the significance and the meaning of the stressor they’re confronting |
| Benign Job Demands | Job demands that tend not to be appraised as stressful |
| Hindrance Stressors | stressful demands that people tend to perceive as hindering their progress toward personal accomplishments or goal attainment |
| Challenge Stressors | stressful demands that people tend to perceive as opportunities for learning, growth, and achievement |
| Role Conflict | Work hindrance stressor that refers to conflicting expectations that other people may have of us |
| Role Ambiguity | Work hindrance stressor that refers to an absence of role clarity, or the lack of information, about what needs to be done in a role, as well as unpredictability regarding the consequences of performance in that role |
| Role Overload | Work hindrance stressor that occurs when the number of demanding roles a person holds is so high that the person simply cannot perform some or all of the roles effectively |
| Daily Hassles | Work hindrance stressor that refers to the relatively minor day-to-day demands that get in the way of accomplishing the things that we really want to accomplish |
| Time Pressure | Work challenge stressor that is a strong sense that the amount of time you have to do a task is not quite enough |
| Work Complexity | Work challenge stressor that refers to the degree to which the requirements of the work—in terms of knowledge, skills, and abilities—tax or exceed the capabilities of the person who is responsible for performing the work |
| Work Responsibility | Work challenge stressor that refers to the nature of the obligations that a person has toward others |
| Work-Family Conflict | Nonwork hindrance stressor in which a special form of role conflict in which the demands of a work role hinder the fulfillment of the demands of a family role (or vice versa) |
| Negative Life Events | Nonwork hindrance stressor in which life events are perceived as quite stressful, particularly when they result in significant changes to a person’s life |
| Financial Uncertainty | Nonwork hindrance stressor that refers to conditions that create uncertainties with regard to the loss of livelihood, savings, or the ability to pay expenses |
| Family Time Demands | Nonwork challenge stressor that refers to the time that a person commits to participate in an array of family activities and responsibilities |
| Personal Development | Nonwork challenge stressor that includes participation in formal education programs, music lessons, sports-related training, hobby-related self-education, participation in local government, or volunteer work |
| Positive Life Events | Nonwork challenge stressor that involves events that are stressful in their own way, but are a positive event |
| Secondary Appraisal | after people appraise a stressful demand, they ask themselves, “What should I do?” and “What can I do?” to deal with this situation |
| Coping | refers to the behaviors and thoughts that people use to manage both the stressful demands they face and the emotions associated with those stressful demands |
| Behavioral Coping | involves the set of physical activities that are used to deal with a stressful situation |
| Cognitive Coping | refers to the thoughts that are involved in trying to deal with a stressful situation |
| Problem-Focused Coping | refers to behaviors and cognitions intended to manage the stressful situation itself |
| Emotion-Focused Coping | refers to the various ways in which people manage their own emotional reactions to stressful demands |
| Burnout | defined as the emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion that results from having to cope with stressful demands on an ongoing basis |
| Type A Behavior Pattern | these people have a strong sense of time urgency and tend to be impatient, hard-driving, competitive, controlling, aggressive, and even hostile |
| Recovery | refers to the degree to which energies used for coping with work demands are replenished from a period of rest or relief from work, is a second factor that influences the stress process |
| Social Support | refers to the help that people receive when they’re confronted with stressful demands, and there are at least two major types |
| Instrumental Support | refers to the help people receive that can be used to address the stressful demand directly |
| Emotional Support | refers to the help people receive in addressing the emotional distress that accompanies stressful demands |
| Motivation | defined as a set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an employee, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence |
| Engagement | a contemporary synonym, more or less, for high levels of intensity and persistence in work effort |
| Expectancy Theory | describes the cognitive process that employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses |
| Expectancy | represents the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task |
| Self-Efficacy | defined as the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for task success |
| Past Accomplishments | the degree to which they have succeeded or failed in similar sorts of tasks in the past |
| Vicarious Experiences | taking into account their observations and discussions with others who have performed such tasks |
| Verbal Persuasion | friends, coworkers, and leaders can persuade employees that they can get the job done |
| Emotional Cues | Dictates efficacy through feelings |
| Instrumentality | represents the belief that successful performance will result in some outcome(s) |
| Valence | reflects the anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance (abbreviated V) |
| Needs | defined as cognitive groupings or clusters of outcomes that are viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences |
| Extrinsic Motivation | motivation that is controlled by some contingency that depends on task performance |
| Intrinsic Motivation | motivation that is felt when task performance serves as its own reward |
| Meaning of Money | the degree to which they view money as having symbolic, not just economic, value |
| Goal Setting Theory | views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort |
| Specific and Difficult Goals | result in higher levels of performance than assigning no goals, easy goals, or “do-your-best” goals |
| Self-Set Goals | internalized goals that people use to monitor their own task progress |
| Task Strategies | defined as learning plans and problem-solving approaches used to achieve successful performance |
| Feedback | consists of updates on employee progress toward goal attainment |
| Task Complexity | reflects how complicated the information and actions involved in a task are, as well as how much the task changes |
| Goal Commitment | defined as the degree to which a person accepts a goal and is determined to try to reach it |
| Equity Theory | acknowledges that motivation doesn’t just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people |
| Comparison Other | some person who seems to provide an intuitive frame of reference for judging equity |
| Equity Distress | an internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios |
| Cognitive Distortion | allows you to restore balance mentally, without altering your behavior in any way |
| Internal Comparisons | comparisons that refer to someone in the same company |
| External Comparisons | comparisons that refer to someone in a different company |
| Psychological Empowerment | reflects an energy rooted in the belief that work tasks contribute to some larger purpose |
| Meaningfulness | captures the value of a work goal or purpose, relative to a person’s own ideals and passions |
| Self-Determination | reflects a sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks |
| Competence | captures a person’s belief in their capability to perform work tasks successfully |
| Impact | reflects the sense that a person’s actions “make a difference”—that progress is being made toward fulfilling some important purpose |
| Reputation | reflects the prominence of its brand in the minds of the public and the perceived quality of its goods and services |
| Justice | reflects the perceived fairness of an authority’s decision making |
| Ethics | reflects the degree to which the behaviors of an authority are in accordance with generally accepted moral norms |
| Disposition-Based Trust | meaning that your personality traits include a general propensity to trust others |
| Cognition-Based Trust | meaning that it’s rooted in a rational assessment of the authority’s trustworthiness |
| Affect-Based Trust | meaning that it depends on feelings toward the authority that go beyond any rational assessment |
| Trust Prosperity | general expectation that the words, promises, and statements of individuals and groups can be relied upon |
| Trustworthiness | defined as the characteristics or attributes of a trustee that inspire trust |
| Ability | defined as the skills, competencies, and areas of expertise that enable an authority to be successful in some specific area |
| Benevolence | defined as the belief that the authority wants to do good for the trustor, apart from any selfish or profit-centered motives |
| Integrity | defined as the perception that the authority adheres to a set of values and principles that the trustor finds acceptable |
| Distributive Justice | reflects the perceived fairness of decision-making outcomes |
| Procedural Justice | reflects the perceived fairness of decision-making processes |
| Interpersonal Justice | reflects the perceived fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities |
| Abusive Supervision | defined as the sustained display of hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviors, excluding physical contact |
| Informational Justice | reflects the perceived fairness of the communications provided to employees from authorities |
| Whistle-Blowing | occurs when former or current employees expose illegal or immoral actions by their organization |
| Four-Component Model | ethical decision making argues that ethical behaviors result from a multistage sequence beginning with moral awareness, continuing on to moral judgment, then to moral intent, and ultimately to ethical behavior |
| Moral Awareness | occurs when an authority recognizes that a moral issue exists in a situation or that an ethical code or principle is relevant to the circumstance |
| Moral Intensity | captures the degree to which an issue has ethical urgency |
| Moral Attentiveness | captures the degree to which people chronically perceive and consider issues of morality during their experiences |
| Moral Judgement | reflects the process people use to determine whether a particular course of action is ethical or unethical |
| Cognitive Moral Development | This theory argues that as people age and mature, they move through various stages of moral development—each more mature and sophisticated than the prior one |
| Moral Principles | serve as prescriptive guides for making moral judgments |
| Moral Intent | reflects an authority’s degree of commitment to the moral course of action |
| Moral Identity | the degree to which a person self-identifies as a moral person |
| Ability to Focus | reflects the degree to which employees can devote their attention to work, as opposed to “covering their backside,” “playing politics,” and “keeping an eye on the boss.” |
| Economic Exchange | relationships that are based on narrowly defined, quid pro quo obligations that are specified in advance and have an explicit repayment schedule |
| Social Exchange | relationships develop that are based on vaguely defined obligations that are open-ended and long term in their repayment schedule |
| Corporate Social Responsibility | perspective that acknowledges that the responsibilities of a business encompass the economic, legal, ethical, and citizenship expectations of society |
| Learning | reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee’s knowledge or skill that result from experience |
| Decision Making | refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem |
| Expertise | refers to the knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people |
| Explicit Knowledge | kind of information you’re likely to think about when you picture someone sitting down at a desk to learn. It’s information that’s relatively easily communicated and a large part of what companies teach during training sessions |
| Tacit Knowledge | what employees can typically learn only through experience. It’s not easily communicated but could very well be the most important aspect of what we learn in organizations |
| Contingencies of Reinforcement | four specific consequences typically used by organizations to modify employee behavior |
| Positive Reinforcement | occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior (Increase desired) |
| Negative Reinforcement | occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior (Increase desired) |
| Punishment | occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior (Decrease undesired) |
| Extinction | occurs when there is the removal of a consequence following an unwanted behavior (Decrease undesired) |
| Schedules of Reinforcement | timing of when the contingencies are applied |
| Continuous Reinforcement | happens when a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior |
| Fixed Interval Schedule | most common form of reinforcement schedule. With this schedule, workers are rewarded after a certain amount of time, and the length of time between reinforcement periods stays the same |
| Variable Interval Schedules | designed to reinforce behavior at more random points in time |
| Fixed Ratio Schedules | reinforce behaviors after a certain number of them have been exhibited |
| Variable Ratio Schedules | reward people after a varying number of exhibited behaviors |
| Social Learning Theory | argues that people in organizations have the ability to learn through the observation of others |
| Behavioral Modeling | When employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat the observed behavior |
| Learning Orientation | where building competence is deemed more important than demonstrating competence |
| Performance-Prove Orientation | focus on demonstrating their competence so that others think favorably of them |
| Performance-Avoid Orientation | focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will not think poorly of them |
| Programmed Decisions | decisions that become somewhat automatic because people’s knowledge allows them to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action that needs to be taken |
| Intuition | described as emotionally charged judgments that arise through quick, nonconscious, and holistic associations |
| Crisis Situation | change—whether sudden or evolving—that results in an urgent problem that must be addressed immediately |
| Rational Decision-Making Model | offers a step-by-step approach to making decisions that maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives |
| Bounded Rationality | notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision |
| Sacrificing | results when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative considered |
| Selective Perception | tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations |
| Projection Bias | people project their own thoughts, attitudes, and motives onto other people |
| Social Identity Theory | people identify themselves by the groups to which they belong and perceive and judge others by their group memberships |
| Stereotype | occurs when assumptions are made about others on the basis of their membership in a social group |
| Heuristics | simple, efficient rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily |
| Availability Bias | is the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is easier to recall |
| Fundamental Attribution Error | argues that people have a tendency to judge others’ behaviors as due to internal factors |
| Self-Serving Bias | occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our own successes to internal factors |
| Consensus | Did others act the same way under similar situations? |
| Distinctiveness | Does this person tend to act differently in other circumstances? |
| Consistency | Does this person always do this when performing this task? |
| Escalation of Commitment | refers to the decision to continue to follow a failing course of action |
| Training | represents a systematic effort by organizations to facilitate the learning of job-related knowledge and behavior |
| Knowledge Transfer | from knowledge of older, experienced workers to their younger employees |
| Behavior Modeling Training | employees have the ability to observe and learn from those in the company with significant amounts of tacit knowledge |
| Communities of Practice | groups of employees who work together and learn from one another by collaborating over an extended period of time |
| Transfer of Training | occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job |
| Climate for Transfer | an environment that can support the use of new skills |
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