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AP II chp 18

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Question
Answer
Secretes a type of hormone to regulate the body   glands  
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Functions of hormones   mood, growth and development, tissue function and metabolism  
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Direct cell signaling   typically involves the movement of ions via gap junctions  
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signaling cell releases a chemical messenger that binds to a receptor on the target cell and activates a signal transduction pathway   indirect cell signaling  
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paracrine   diffusion to a nearby cell  
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autocrine   diffusion back to the signaling cell  
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endocrine   hormone is transported by the circulatory system  
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neural   electrical signal travels along a neuron and releases a neurotransmitter  
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Three steps of indirect signaling   1)release of chemical messenger; 2)transport of the messenger through the extracellular enviornment to the target cell; 3)communication of the signal to the target cell  
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types of messengers of indirect signaling   hydropphobic(cross membrane by diffusion); and hydrophilic (bind to receptor)  
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a chemical released by one or more cells that affects cells in other parts of the organism   hormones  
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hormonal signaling involves:   biosynthesis; storage and secretion; transport; recognition; relay and amplification(aka translation)(leads to cellular response); degradation  
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hormone actions on target cells   1)alter plasma membrane permeability; 2)synthesis of proteins; 3)activate or deactivate enzyme systems; 4)mitosis  
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hormones can be divided into 3 classes   1)amino acid derivatives; 2)peptide hormones; 3)lipid derivatives  
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hormone receptor   protein molecule; responds to several different hormones; combination of receptors; specific receptor  
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agonists   activate receptors  
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antagonists   block receptors; prevent response from happening  
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ligand-gated ion channels   1)ligand binds receptor; 2) receptor changes shape opening a channel; 3)ions move across membrane;4)concentration and electrical gradients dictate movement;5)alters membrane potential  
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Receptor Enzymes   activated ligand starts a phosphorylation cascade; name based on the reaction catalyzed  
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G protein   enzyme complex coupled to membrane receptor; second messenger  
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cAMP signaling mechanism   1st messenger binds to receptor;g-protein activated; adenylate cyclase activated; converts ATP to cAMP(2nd messenger);protein kinases  
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peptide hormones   synthesized on rough ER; stored in vesicles; exocytosis; hydrophilic; bind to transmembrane receptors; rapid effects  
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steroid and thyroid hormones   must be synthesized on demand;transport by carrier proteins(albumin);regulate transcription(slow effects); hydrophobic; synthesis smooth ER or mitochondria; can't be stored w/in cell  
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Negative Feedback of regulation of cell signaling   any change from normal; maintains homeostasis  
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positive feedback of regulation of cell signaling   accelerate or enhance; moves away from normal levels  
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pituitary gland (hypophysis)   releases 9 important peptide hormones; hormones bind to membrane receptors; use cAMP as 2nd messenger  
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thyroglobulin (globular protein[of the thyroid gland])   produce the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4)and triiodothyronine(T3)  
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Thyroxine (T4)   acts as prohormone for T3  
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triiodothyronine (T3)   exhibits greater activity than T4  
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thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)   binds to membrane receptors; activates key enzymes in thyroid hormone production  
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thyroid hormones   bind to receptors in Cytoplasm, surfaces of mitochondria and nucleus  
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C (Clear) cells of the thyroid gland   produce calcitonin (CT);movement of calcium into bone; inhibits osteoclast activity  
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4 effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH)   released in response to low concentrations of Ca2+; 1)stimulates osteoclasts;2)inhibits osteoblasts;3)enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ at kidneys;4)stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol at kidneys  
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what is the location of suprarenal (adrenal)glands   lie along superior border of each kidney  
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superficial suprarenal cortex   stores lipids; manufactures steroid hormones(glucocorticoids[cortisol] and mineralocorticoids[aldosterone])  
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inner suprarenal medulla   secretions controlled by sympathetic of ANS; produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine; metabolic changes persist for several minutes  
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pineal gland   contains pinealocytes=synthesize hormone melatonin  
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functions of melatonin   slows maturation of sperm; antioxidant(protect against damage by free radicals); setting circadian rhythms  
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insulin   peptide hormone release by beta cells; affects target cells  
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glucagon   released by alpha cells; mobilizes energy reserves; affects target cells  
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intestines   hormones important to coordination of digestive activities  
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kidneys   produce the hormones calcitriol and erythropoietin; produce the enzyme renin  
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heart   produces natriuretic peptides: resulting in reduction in blood volume and blood pressure  
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thymus   produces thymosins that help develop and maintain normal immune defenses  
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gonads   testes=testosterone; ovaries=estrogen  
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adipose tissue secretions   leptin=feedback control for appetite; resistin=reduces insulin sensitivity  
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name the hormones important to growth   GH; thyroid hormones; insulin; PTH and Calcitriol; reproductive hormones  
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T/F: hydrophobic needs a receptor outside the cell   false they DO NOT  
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amino acid derivatives examples:   thyroid hormones; catecholamines: epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamin; melatonin  
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peptid hormones examples:   EPO, ADH, oxytocin, insulin  
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lipid derivatives examples:   steroid hormones:estrogens, calcitriol; eicosanoids: prostaglandins  
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peptide hormones characteristics   hydrophilic, made in advance, stored in vesciles, released by exocytosis, short life  
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steroid homrones   hydrophobic, made on demand, released by diffusion, long life  
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competitive antagonist   binds to the same site as nautral ligand=which then blocks natural ligand  
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noncompetitive antagonist   does not bind tot he same site as natural ligand-binds at different area of receptor  
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BONUS:spell out cGMP and cAMP   cyclic guanosine monophosphate; cyclic adenosine monophosphate  
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what happens when protein kinases phosphorylate proteins?   makes them excitable  
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G protein activates enzyme phospholipase C triggers?   receptor cascade: production of diacylglycerol(DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) from membrane phospholipids  
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IP3 diffuses into cytoplasm and triggers?   releases of Ca2+ from intracellular reserves ie. smooth ER  
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DAG and Ca2+ activate?   protein kinase C which phosphorylates Ca2+(2nd messenger), opening them and Ca2+ enters the cell (pos. feedback)  
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Effects of cAMP levels with epinephrine and norepinephrine depend on what?   receptor type (alpha and beta receptors)  
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What does the pituitary gland help control?   growth, blood pressure, aspects pregnancy/childbirth, breast milk production, sex organ functions, thyroid gland function, metabolism,water and osmolarity regulation,absorption water into kidneys, temp regulation  
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What are the 2 major lobers of the pituitary gland?   posterior pituitary(lobe); anterior pituitary (lobe)  
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hormones in the anterior pituitary lobe   TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, GH, PRL, MSH  
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hormones in posteriro pituitary lobe   oxytocin, ADH  
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Thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH)   thyroid  
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prolactin(PRL)   mammary gland  
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adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH)   adrenal gland  
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growth hormone(GH)   in adipose tissue and bone  
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follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)   gonads(testes, ovaries)  
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luteinizing hormone (LH)   gonads (testes, ovaries)  
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melanocyte-stimulating hormone(MSH)   melanocytes  
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What are the skeletal effects of growth hormone?   increased cartilage formation and skeletal growth  
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what are the extraskeletal effects of growth hormone?   increased protein synthesis, and cell growth and proliferation  
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what are the fat effects of growth hormone?   increased fat breakdown and release  
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what are the carbohydrate metabolism effects of growth hormone?   increased blood glucose and other anti-insulin effects  
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T/F: the pituitary has direct release but not direct control   False; has direct control  
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what are the main effects of thyroid hormones?   1)elevated rates of oxygen and energy consumption;2)increased heart rate and force of contraction; 3)stimulation of RBC formation  
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Cortisol   controls carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism and are anti-inflammatory  
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aldosterone   control electrolyte and water levels, mainly by promoting sodium retention in the kidney  
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endocrine in pancreas   consists of cells that form clusters known as pancreatic islets, or isltes of Langerhans; alpha, beta, delta, F cells  
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alpha cells of pancreas(endocrine)   produce glucAgon  
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beta cells of pancreas(endocrine)   produce insulin  
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delta cells of pancreas(endocrine)   produce peptide hormone identical to SOMATOSTATIN ie. GH-IH  
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F cells of pancreas(endocrine)   secrete pancreatic polypeptide(PP)  
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exocrine in pancreas   secreting PANCREATIC JUICE containing digestive enzymes that pass to the duodenum  
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What happens when blood glucose levels rise(pancreas)?   beta cells secret insulin (stimulating transport of glucose across plasma membranes)  
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what happens when blood glucose levels decline (pancreas)?   alpha cells release glucagon(stimulating glucose release by liver)  
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what is the hormone for delta cells?   GH-IH(somatostatin)  
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what are the hormonal effects of delta cells?(with their hormone)   inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion; slows rates of nutrien absorptiona nd enzyme secretion along digestive tract  
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What is the hormone for F cells?   pancreatic polypeptide (PP)  
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what are the hormonal effects of F cells? (with their hormone)   inhibits gallbladder contraction; regulates production of pancreatic enzymes; influences rate of nturient absorption by digestive tract  
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GH   in kids: supports muscular and skeletal development; in adults:maintains normal blood glucose concentrations and mobilizes lipid reserves  
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thryoid hormones   if absent during fetal development, nervous system fails to develop->mental retardation; if T4 concentrations decline before puberty, normal skeletal development will not continue  
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insulin   allows passage of glucose and amino acids across plasma membranes  
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PTH and calcitriol   promote absorption of calcium salts for deposition in bone; inadequate levels causes weak and flexible bones  
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reproductive hormones   androgens in males, estrogens in females; stimulate cell growth and differentiation in target tissues, produce gener-related differences in skeletal proportions and secondary sex characteristics  
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