AP II chp 18
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Secretes a type of hormone to regulate the body | glands
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Functions of hormones | mood, growth and development, tissue function and metabolism
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Direct cell signaling | typically involves the movement of ions via gap junctions
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signaling cell releases a chemical messenger that binds to a receptor on the target cell and activates a signal transduction pathway | indirect cell signaling
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paracrine | diffusion to a nearby cell
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autocrine | diffusion back to the signaling cell
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endocrine | hormone is transported by the circulatory system
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neural | electrical signal travels along a neuron and releases a neurotransmitter
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Three steps of indirect signaling | 1)release of chemical messenger; 2)transport of the messenger through the extracellular enviornment to the target cell; 3)communication of the signal to the target cell
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types of messengers of indirect signaling | hydropphobic(cross membrane by diffusion); and hydrophilic (bind to receptor)
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a chemical released by one or more cells that affects cells in other parts of the organism | hormones
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hormonal signaling involves: | biosynthesis; storage and secretion; transport; recognition; relay and amplification(aka translation)(leads to cellular response); degradation
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hormone actions on target cells | 1)alter plasma membrane permeability; 2)synthesis of proteins; 3)activate or deactivate enzyme systems; 4)mitosis
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hormones can be divided into 3 classes | 1)amino acid derivatives; 2)peptide hormones; 3)lipid derivatives
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hormone receptor | protein molecule; responds to several different hormones; combination of receptors; specific receptor
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agonists | activate receptors
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antagonists | block receptors; prevent response from happening
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ligand-gated ion channels | 1)ligand binds receptor; 2) receptor changes shape opening a channel; 3)ions move across membrane;4)concentration and electrical gradients dictate movement;5)alters membrane potential
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Receptor Enzymes | activated ligand starts a phosphorylation cascade; name based on the reaction catalyzed
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G protein | enzyme complex coupled to membrane receptor; second messenger
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cAMP signaling mechanism | 1st messenger binds to receptor;g-protein activated; adenylate cyclase activated; converts ATP to cAMP(2nd messenger);protein kinases
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peptide hormones | synthesized on rough ER; stored in vesicles; exocytosis; hydrophilic; bind to transmembrane receptors; rapid effects
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steroid and thyroid hormones | must be synthesized on demand;transport by carrier proteins(albumin);regulate transcription(slow effects); hydrophobic; synthesis smooth ER or mitochondria; can't be stored w/in cell
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Negative Feedback of regulation of cell signaling | any change from normal; maintains homeostasis
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positive feedback of regulation of cell signaling | accelerate or enhance; moves away from normal levels
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pituitary gland (hypophysis) | releases 9 important peptide hormones; hormones bind to membrane receptors; use cAMP as 2nd messenger
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thyroglobulin (globular protein[of the thyroid gland]) | produce the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4)and triiodothyronine(T3)
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Thyroxine (T4) | acts as prohormone for T3
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triiodothyronine (T3) | exhibits greater activity than T4
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thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) | binds to membrane receptors; activates key enzymes in thyroid hormone production
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thyroid hormones | bind to receptors in Cytoplasm, surfaces of mitochondria and nucleus
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C (Clear) cells of the thyroid gland | produce calcitonin (CT);movement of calcium into bone; inhibits osteoclast activity
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4 effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH) | released in response to low concentrations of Ca2+; 1)stimulates osteoclasts;2)inhibits osteoblasts;3)enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ at kidneys;4)stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol at kidneys
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what is the location of suprarenal (adrenal)glands | lie along superior border of each kidney
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superficial suprarenal cortex | stores lipids; manufactures steroid hormones(glucocorticoids[cortisol] and mineralocorticoids[aldosterone])
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inner suprarenal medulla | secretions controlled by sympathetic of ANS; produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine; metabolic changes persist for several minutes
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pineal gland | contains pinealocytes=synthesize hormone melatonin
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functions of melatonin | slows maturation of sperm; antioxidant(protect against damage by free radicals); setting circadian rhythms
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insulin | peptide hormone release by beta cells; affects target cells
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glucagon | released by alpha cells; mobilizes energy reserves; affects target cells
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intestines | hormones important to coordination of digestive activities
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kidneys | produce the hormones calcitriol and erythropoietin; produce the enzyme renin
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heart | produces natriuretic peptides: resulting in reduction in blood volume and blood pressure
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thymus | produces thymosins that help develop and maintain normal immune defenses
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gonads | testes=testosterone; ovaries=estrogen
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adipose tissue secretions | leptin=feedback control for appetite; resistin=reduces insulin sensitivity
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name the hormones important to growth | GH; thyroid hormones; insulin; PTH and Calcitriol; reproductive hormones
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T/F: hydrophobic needs a receptor outside the cell | false they DO NOT
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amino acid derivatives examples: | thyroid hormones; catecholamines: epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamin; melatonin
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peptid hormones examples: | EPO, ADH, oxytocin, insulin
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lipid derivatives examples: | steroid hormones:estrogens, calcitriol; eicosanoids: prostaglandins
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peptide hormones characteristics | hydrophilic, made in advance, stored in vesciles, released by exocytosis, short life
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steroid homrones | hydrophobic, made on demand, released by diffusion, long life
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competitive antagonist | binds to the same site as nautral ligand=which then blocks natural ligand
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noncompetitive antagonist | does not bind tot he same site as natural ligand-binds at different area of receptor
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BONUS:spell out cGMP and cAMP | cyclic guanosine monophosphate; cyclic adenosine monophosphate
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what happens when protein kinases phosphorylate proteins? | makes them excitable
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G protein activates enzyme phospholipase C triggers? | receptor cascade: production of diacylglycerol(DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) from membrane phospholipids
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IP3 diffuses into cytoplasm and triggers? | releases of Ca2+ from intracellular reserves ie. smooth ER
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DAG and Ca2+ activate? | protein kinase C which phosphorylates Ca2+(2nd messenger), opening them and Ca2+ enters the cell (pos. feedback)
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Effects of cAMP levels with epinephrine and norepinephrine depend on what? | receptor type (alpha and beta receptors)
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What does the pituitary gland help control? | growth, blood pressure, aspects pregnancy/childbirth, breast milk production, sex organ functions, thyroid gland function, metabolism,water and osmolarity regulation,absorption water into kidneys, temp regulation
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What are the 2 major lobers of the pituitary gland? | posterior pituitary(lobe); anterior pituitary (lobe)
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hormones in the anterior pituitary lobe | TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, GH, PRL, MSH
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hormones in posteriro pituitary lobe | oxytocin, ADH
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Thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) | thyroid
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prolactin(PRL) | mammary gland
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adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) | adrenal gland
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growth hormone(GH) | in adipose tissue and bone
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follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) | gonads(testes, ovaries)
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luteinizing hormone (LH) | gonads (testes, ovaries)
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melanocyte-stimulating hormone(MSH) | melanocytes
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What are the skeletal effects of growth hormone? | increased cartilage formation and skeletal growth
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what are the extraskeletal effects of growth hormone? | increased protein synthesis, and cell growth and proliferation
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what are the fat effects of growth hormone? | increased fat breakdown and release
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what are the carbohydrate metabolism effects of growth hormone? | increased blood glucose and other anti-insulin effects
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T/F: the pituitary has direct release but not direct control | False; has direct control
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what are the main effects of thyroid hormones? | 1)elevated rates of oxygen and energy consumption;2)increased heart rate and force of contraction; 3)stimulation of RBC formation
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Cortisol | controls carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism and are anti-inflammatory
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aldosterone | control electrolyte and water levels, mainly by promoting sodium retention in the kidney
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endocrine in pancreas | consists of cells that form clusters known as pancreatic islets, or isltes of Langerhans; alpha, beta, delta, F cells
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alpha cells of pancreas(endocrine) | produce glucAgon
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beta cells of pancreas(endocrine) | produce insulin
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delta cells of pancreas(endocrine) | produce peptide hormone identical to SOMATOSTATIN ie. GH-IH
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F cells of pancreas(endocrine) | secrete pancreatic polypeptide(PP)
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exocrine in pancreas | secreting PANCREATIC JUICE containing digestive enzymes that pass to the duodenum
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What happens when blood glucose levels rise(pancreas)? | beta cells secret insulin (stimulating transport of glucose across plasma membranes)
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what happens when blood glucose levels decline (pancreas)? | alpha cells release glucagon(stimulating glucose release by liver)
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what is the hormone for delta cells? | GH-IH(somatostatin)
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what are the hormonal effects of delta cells?(with their hormone) | inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion; slows rates of nutrien absorptiona nd enzyme secretion along digestive tract
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What is the hormone for F cells? | pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
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what are the hormonal effects of F cells? (with their hormone) | inhibits gallbladder contraction; regulates production of pancreatic enzymes; influences rate of nturient absorption by digestive tract
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GH | in kids: supports muscular and skeletal development; in adults:maintains normal blood glucose concentrations and mobilizes lipid reserves
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thryoid hormones | if absent during fetal development, nervous system fails to develop->mental retardation; if T4 concentrations decline before puberty, normal skeletal development will not continue
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insulin | allows passage of glucose and amino acids across plasma membranes
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PTH and calcitriol | promote absorption of calcium salts for deposition in bone; inadequate levels causes weak and flexible bones
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reproductive hormones | androgens in males, estrogens in females; stimulate cell growth and differentiation in target tissues, produce gener-related differences in skeletal proportions and secondary sex characteristics
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