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Principles of Diagnosis

Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in each of the black spaces below before clicking on it to display the answer.
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disease    
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lesions   well-defined, characteristic structural changes present in various organs/tissues  
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disease is often associated with   lesions  
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gross examination   examining with naked eye  
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histological examination   exam with aid of microscope  
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lesions can be recognized by what type of exam?   gross or histological  
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specialized studies   supplement to histological exam, which evaluates properties of cell membranes & proteins within cell  
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organic disease   associate with structural changes  
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functional disease   no morphological abnormalities even though body functions may be profoundly disturbed  
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pathology   study of disease  
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pathologist   physician specializing in diagnosing & classifying diseases  
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pathologists diagnose & classify diseases by examining the ___ of cells & tissues.   morphology  
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symptoms of a disease   subjective manifestations in an affected individual  
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signs of a disease   objective manifestations, detectable by clinician; physical findings  
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abnormal lab test results   changes in quantity of circulating blood, or to biochemical constituents in blood fluids  
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asymptomatic disease/illness   disease causing no discomfort/disability to affected individual  
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in its early stages a disease is often   asymptomatic  
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distinction between asymptomatic/symptomatic disease is one of degree depending   primarily on extent of disease  
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etiology   cause, especially the cause of a disease  
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disease of unknown etiology is one   for which the cause is not yet known  
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etiological agent   agent responsible for cause of disease  
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pathogenesis   manner by which disease develops  
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pathogen   any microorganism that causes development of a disease  
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lesions produced by various disease in a category are   morphologically similar or have similar pathogenesis  
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congenital & hereditary diseases   result of a range of developmental disturbances  
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inflammatory diseases   body reacts to injurious agent by means of inflammation  
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sore throat or pneumonia, as an inflammatory disease, are caused by   bacteria or other microbiological agents  
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as an inflammatory disease "hay fever" is   a manifestation of an allergic reaction or hypersensitivity state in the patient  
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caused by antibodies formed against the patient's own tissues   inflammatory autoimmune diseases  
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primary abnormality is degeneration of various parts of the body   degenerative diseases  
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these are more advance/occur sooner that normal if age related & distinctly abnormal   degenerative lesions  
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certain types of arthritis & arteriosclerosis are common examples of   degenerative diseases  
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chief disturbance in some important metabolic process in the body   metabolic diseases  
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common examples of metabolic diseases are   diabetes, disturbances of endocrine glands & electrolyte balances  
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characterized by abnormal cell growth leading to formation of various benign/malignant tumors   neoplastic diseases  
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goal of traditional medicine   cure or ameliorate disease  
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health   condition in which mind/body function efficiently & harmoniously as integrated unit  
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diagnosis   determination of nature & cause of patient's illness  
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the diagnosis is based on   practitioner's evaluation, patient's subjective symptoms, physical findings & results of various lab tests  
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prognosis   opinion concerning eventual outcome of disease/disorder; outlook for recovery  
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history of present illness elicits details concerning   severity, time of onset & character of patient's symptoms  
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past medical history provides details of   patient's general health & previous illnesses  
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family history provides information about   health of parents & other family members  
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social history deals with   patient's occupation, habits, alcohol & tobacco consumption & similar data  
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review of symptoms inquires as to presence of symptoms other than   those disclosed in history of present illness  
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possible dysfunctions of other organ systems are evaluated by   systematic inquiry  
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physical examination   systemic evaluation of patient  
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differential diagnosis the practitioner considers   number of diseases characterized by patient's symptoms  
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practitioner can narrow list of diagnostic possibilities to arrive at correct diagnosis by   using selected lab test or other specialized diagnostic procedures  
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medical consultant   physician with specialized training & experience in type of medical problems presented by patient  
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disease-management team   composed of group of persons with special skills useful to care/treatment of patients with the diseases  
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specific treatment   exerts highly specific & favorable effect on basic cause of disease  
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symptomatic treatment   alleviates symptoms but doesn't influence course of underlying disease  
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screening tests for disease are important because many diseases respond to treatment   are asymptomatic initially  
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when left untreated the disease often progresses slowly causing   gradual but progressive organ damage until person is seriously ill with far advanced organ damage from the disease  
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treatment of late-stage disease is often much less effective and may not be able to   restore function of organs that have been damaged  
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disease-related organ damage can be prevented or minimized if   identified & treated in its asymptomatic stage  
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a successful screening program should include   significant # of persons in group being screened are at risk for the disease  
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a successful screening program should be   relatively inexpensive test not yielding excessive # false-positive/false-negative results in screening for the disease  
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a successful screening program should provide for   early identification & treatment of disease with favorable influence on health/welfare of persons with the disease  
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screening tests should target   group of persons with relatively high frequency of disease & age group disease likely to be present  
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screening groups of persons for a disease in early asymptomatic stage requires   type of test that can identify characteristic manifestation of the disease  
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false-positive   test is positive when no disease is present  
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less sensitive screening tests can yield an excess   of false-negative results  
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false-negative   test is negative when disease is present  
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screening test results should   provide some benefit to the person being screened  
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there is no point in screening for a disease if   there is no treatment available to arrest progression of disease  
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cost-effective screening test for diabetes   urine test to detect glucose in urine  
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cost-effective screening test for colon tumors   tests to detect blood in stools  
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cost-effective screening test for abnormalities in epithelium of uterine cervix that is predisposed to cancer   Papanicolaou smear (Pap tests)  
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cost-effective screening test for very early breast cancer at stage when can be treated most effectively   mammograms - breast x-ray examinations  
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can also be used to screen for carriers of some genetic diseases   screening tests  
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screening tests to identify genetic disease trait carriers allows for   persons to make decisions about future childbearing or management of future pregnancy  
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invasive procedures   patient's body is actually "invaded" in some way in order to obtain diagnostic information  
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noninvasive procedures   entail minimal/no risk/discomfort to patient in order to obtain diagnostic information  
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with any diagnostic procedure the practitioner must   possible disadvantages to patient vs. benefits derived from info obtained during procedure  
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it would be unwise to perform a potentially risky diagnostic procedure if   info gained would not significantly contribute to diagnosis or influence course of treatment  
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can be used to determine the concentration of various constituents in the blood/urine frequently altered by disease   clinical lab tests  
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using clinical lab tests could determine concentration of urea in blood to diagnose   kidney function issues  
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clinical lab tests can detect concentrations of hemoglobin & quantity of reduced red cells in   patients with anemia  
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clinical lab tests can determine concentration (activity) of   enzymes in blood  
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enzyme levels in blood can be elevated, and detected with clinical lab tests, due to   enzymes leaking from diseased/injured organs  
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when enzyme synthesis is increased as a result of disease   enzyme levels in blood can be elevated & detected with clinical lab tests of blood  
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when there is elevated enzyme levels in clinical lab tests of blood, it can indicate   excretion of enzymes impaired due to blockage of normal excretory pathways by disease  
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clinical lab tests may also be used to   evaluate function of organs  
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clearance tests   measure rate at which a substance is removed from blood & excrete in urine  
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provides a measure of renal function   clearance tests  
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pulmonary function tests   measure rate at which air moves in/out of lungs  
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determination of concentration of O2 & CO2 in blood can also indicate   pulmonary function  
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simple device applies to finger can rapidly calculate the amount of O2 carries by hemoglobin as another   measure of pulmonary function  
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measure of liver function   tests that measure uptake & excretion of various substances by the liver  
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serial analysis of liver uptake substances can be used to monitor   response of certain tumors to treatment  
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microbiological tests   detect presence of disease-producing organisms in urine, blood & feces  
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determine responsiveness of organisms to antibiotics   microbiological tests  
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serologic tests   detect & measure presence of antibodies as indication of response to infectious agents  
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ECG, EEG, & EMG are   tests measuring electrical impulses associated with various bodily functions/activities  
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the most widely used test of electrical activity is   the ECG (electrocardiogram)  
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ECG (electrocardiogram)   electrodes measure serial changes in electrical activity of heart during various phases of cardiac cycle  
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identifies disturbances in heart rate/rhythm & abnormal conduction of impulses through heart   ECG (electrocardiogram)  
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heart muscles injury (i.e. heart attack) can be recognized by means of   characteristic abnormalities in cardiogram  
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EEG (electroencephalogram)   measures electrical activity of brain via electrodes attached to various areas on scalp  
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EEG can detect   brain tumors, strokes, & many abnormalities of cerebral structure/function  
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EMG (electromyogram)   measures electrical activity of skeletal muscles at rest & at contraction  
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EMG detects abnormal electrical activity often encountered in   various inflammatory/degenerative diseases involving skeletal muscles  
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radioisotope (radionuclide) studies   evaluates function of various organs by administering radioisotope  
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radioisotope   substance labeled with radioactive material  
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specially processed albumin labeled with radioisotope is administered intravenously as   measure of pulmonary blood flow; used frequently to detect blood clots in lung  
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phosphorus containing isotopes are concentrated in   skeletal system; can detect deposits of tumor in bones  
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using radioactive material injected intravenously can be used to evaluate   blood flow to heart muscle & identify areas of damaged heart muscle  
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endoscopy   exam of interior of body by means of various flexible/rigid tubular instruments  
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endoscopic tubular instruments are named according to   part of body designed to examine  
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esophagoscope   used to examine interior of esophagus  
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gastroscope   used to examine interior of stomach  
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bronchoscope   used to examine interior of trachea & major bronchi  
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cystoscope   used to examine interior of bladder  
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sigmoidoscope   rigid tube used to examine rectum & sigmoid colon  
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colonoscope   flexible tube used to examine entire length of colon  
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laparoscope   used to visualize abdominal & pelvic organs  
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laparoscopy   procedure used to visualize abdominal & pelvic organs  
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laparoscopy can be used to visualize abdominal & pelvic organs and also   perform various surgical procedures to excise tissues/organs formerly removed through much larger incisions  
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ultrasound   technique for mapping echoes produced by high-frequency sound waves transmitted into the body  
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ultrasound is widely used during pregnancy to   study uterus, position of placenta & fetus within uterus, identify fetal abnormalities & detect twins  
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using ultrasound to study structure/function of heart valves can detect   valve abnormalities & identify blood clots in association with infection of the valve  
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X-ray examination   x-rays are passed through the part of the body to be examined & rays leaving body expose an x-ray film  
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extent to which x-rays are absorbed by tissues as they pass through body depends on   density of tissues  
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during x-ray exams, tissues of low density appear as   black  
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during x-ray exams, tissues of high density appear as   white  
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during x-ray exams, tissues of varying densities appear as   varying shades of gray  
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roentgenogram (radiograph)   x-ray image produced on the film  
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a contrast medium is needed when using x-ray to examine   intestinal & urinary tract, bronchi, fallopian tubes & biliary tract  
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contrast medium   dense radiopaque substance that enhances visibility  
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administered when x-ray examination of linings of internal organs that have little contrast   contrast medium  
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this is necessary in order to x-ray exam interior of gastrointestinal tract   suspension of barium sulfate to swallow or administer as an enema  
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bronchogram   visualizing lining of bronchi by instilling radiopaque oil into bronchi  
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intravenous pyelogram (IVP)   radiopaque substance injected into vein & excreted in urine as blood flows through kidney outlining contour of urinary tract  
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retrograde pyelogram   cystoscope introduced into bladder & dye introduced directly into ureters  
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arteriogram or angiogram   dye injected to study blood flow of lrg arteries & identify areas of obstruction  
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using arteriography is often used to detect   narrowing/obstruction of coronary &/or carotid arteries which carry blood to brain  
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obstruction of pulmonary arteries by blood clots can also be identified by   arteriography  
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cardiac catheterization   study flow of blood through heart & can detect abnormal communications between cardiac chambers  
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CT (computed tomography) scan   highly sophisticated x-ray machine produces images of body in cross section by rotating x-ray tube around patient at various levels  
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in CT scans the amount of radiation absorbed is not read on an x-ray film; instead   radiation detectors fed into computer that reconstructs data into images of patient's anatomy  
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abnormalities of internal organs that cannot be identified by standard x-ray exams can   often be identified with CT scans  
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increases in used of CT scans in recent years has been used in screening   asymptomatic persons for lung/colon tumors & screening studies in children  
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due to increased exposure to radiation in CT scans this is a comparable alternative exam   ultrasound exam  
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)   produces computer-constructed images of various organs/tissues  
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MRI scans depend on response of   hydrogen protons contained in water molecules when placed in a strong magnetic field  
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in MRI scans, when a pulse of radiofrequency waves is directed at the protons they are   temporarily dislodged from their orientation, then when return to original position emit signal (resonance) measured & used to produce image  
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MRI is useful in demonstrating areas where myelin sheaths of nerve fibers have been damaged in a neurological disease called   multiple sclerosis  
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positron emission tomography (PET scan)   related to radioisotope studies but more complex/sophisticated & one of newest diagnostic imaging tests  
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positrons   unique subatomic particles that have same mass as electrons but carry positive charge  
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positrons are formed when   atoms are bombarded in cyclotron which high-energy particles, which breaks down atomic nuclei & releases positrons along with other subatomic particles  
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when escaping positrons collide with negatively charged electrons circling nuclei they   produce radiation that can be detected & measured by sensitive radiation detectors  
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PET scan studies provide information on   metabolic activities of organ/tissue being studied, site within organ where compound is being metabolized & blood flow to organ being studied  
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major clinical application for PET scans is   to assess biochemical functions within in the brain  
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PET scans are able to measure changes in brain functions associated with   strokes, brain tumors, Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, & some degenerative hereditary diseases of nervous system  
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A disease in which no morphologic abnormalities can be identified, despite a disruption of bodily function, is   Functional Disease  
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physician who specializes in the diagnosis and classification of disease is   pathologist  
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A disease caused by chromosomal damage at birth would be classified as   congenital  
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A young woman has a benign growth of cells on her thymus. This patient's condition would be classified as   neoplastic disease  
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The opinion of a physician concerning the origins of a disease in a patient is called   etiology  
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A physician examines a patient and determines that the origin of the patient's condition was a Giardia infection caused by drinking contaminated water. The physician's evaluation is called   an etiology  
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A diagnostic test that measures an organ or system's uptake and excretion through the use of a radioactive material is   radioisotope  
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Examining diseased tissue with the naked eye is called a ________ examination   gross  
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esophagoscopes, gastroscopes, cystoscopes, and sigmoidoscopes are all tools used for   endoscopy  
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A computed tomographic scan is a type of   x-ray machine  
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The major clinical use of PET scans today is to examine the   brain  
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An MRI scan uses a magnetic field to align hydrogen protons   within the water that naturally composes the patient's tissues  
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Common types of cytologic and histologic examinations include   pap smear & biopsy  
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genetic abnormalities, abnormalities in #/distribution of chromosomes, intrauterine injury resulting of various agents, or interaction of environmental/genetic factors   congenital/hereditary diseases  
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