A&P Lecture Week 3
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Cell theory | the theory that cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals
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Properties of cells | come from the division of preexisting cells; smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions; maintains homeostasis at cellular level
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Germ cells | sex cells
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Sex cells | reproductive cells; in males, sperm; in females, oocytes
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Somatic cells | all body cells except sex cells
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Extracellular fluid | interstitial fluid
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Interstitial fluid | the watery medium that surrounds each cell
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Plasmalemma | plasma membrane
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Plasma membrane | separates the cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid
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Cytoplasm | composed of the cytosol and organelles
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Functions of the plasma membrane | physical isolation, regulates exchange with environment, monitors environment, structural support
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Membrane lipids | double layer of phospholipid molecules
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Phospholipid | a molecule composed of a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
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Function of membrane lipids | serve as a barrier to ions and water-soluble compounds
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Membrane proteins | proteins that are bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane, or which exist within the membrane
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Integral proteins | membrane proteins that lie within the membrane
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Peripheral proteins | membrane proteins that are bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane
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Functional categories of membrane proteins | anchoring proteins (stabilizers), recognition proteins (identifiers), enzymes, receptor proteins, carrier proteins, channels
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Function of anchoring proteins (stabilizers) | attach to inside or outside structures
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Function of recognition proteins (identifiers) | label cells as normal or abnormal
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Function of enzymes | catalyze reactions
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Function of receptor proteins | bind and respond to ligands such as ions and hormones
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Function of carrier proteins | transport specific solutes through membrane
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Function of channels | regulate water flow and solutes through membrane
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Membrane carbohydrates | composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids
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Glycocalyx (gly·co·ca·lyx) | a sticky sugar coat of membrane carbohydrates surrounding the cell
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Functions of glycocalyx | lubrication and protection, anchoring and locomotion, specificity in binding, recognition
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Cytosol | intracellular fluid composed of dissolved materials; high potassium/low sodium, high protein, high carbohydrate, low amino acid and fat
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Organelles | structures with specific functions
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Nonmembranous organelles | includes cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and proteasomes; in direct contact with cytosol
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Membranous organelles | includes endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria; isolated from cytosol by plasma membrane
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Cytoskeleton | structural proteins for shape and strength
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Types of cytoskeleton fibers | microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules
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Microfilaments | thin filaments composed of actin
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Functions of microfilaments | provide additional mechanical strength; interact with proteins for consistency; pair with thicker filaments of myosin for muscle movement
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Intermediate filaments | composed of collagen, mid-sized between microfilaments and microtubules
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Functions of intermediate filaments | create durability, strengthen cell and maintain shape, stabilize organelles, stabilize cell position
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Microtubules | large, hollow tubes composed of tubulin
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Functions of microtubules | attach to centrosome during mitosis, strengthen cell and anchor organelles, change cell shape, move vesicles within cells using kinesin and dynein, and form spindle apparatus
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Microvilli | finger-like outcroppings of the cell that increase surface area for absorption and attach to cytoskeleton
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Centrosome | cytoplasm surrounding centrioles
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Centriole | one of 27 short microtubules that forms the spindle apparatus in cell division
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Cilia | small hair-like extensions that move fluids across the cell surface
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Ciliary movement | consists of a power stroke, where cilia are fully extended and stiff, and a return stroke, where cilia are soft and relaxed
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Ribosome | builds polypeptides in protein synthesis; can be free or fixed
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Free ribosome | manufactures proteins for secretion
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Fixed ribosome | attached to ER, manufactures proteins for the cell
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Proteasome | contains protease enzymes that disassemble damaged proteins for recycling
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Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) | literally means "network (reticulum) within (endo-) the cytoplasm (-plasmic)"; contains storage chambers, or cisternae
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Functions of the ER | synthesizes proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids; stores synthesized molecules and materials; transports materials within the ER; and detoxifies drugs and toxins
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | ER with no ribosomes; synthesizes phospholipids and cholesterol for membranes, steroid hormones for the reproductive system, glycerides for storage in fat and liver cells, and glycogen for storage in muscles
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum | ER that has ribosomes all over its surface; active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis, folds polypeptide protein structures, and encloses products in transport vesicles
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Golgi apparatus | membranous organelle that accepts vesicles via its forming face and secretes vesicles via its maturing face
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Secretory vesicle | a vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus that modifies and packages products for exocytosis
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Membrane renewal vesicle | a vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus that adds or removes membrane components
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Lysosome | a powerful enzyme-containing vesicle that cleans up inside cells, and can participate in cell self-destruction
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Primary lysosome | a lysosome created by the Golgi apparatus and inactive enzymes
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Secondary lysosome | a lysosome fused with a damaged organelle that is isolating toxic chemicals and activating its digestive enzymes
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How lysosomes clean up in cells | clean up inside cells by breaking down large molecules, attacking bacteria, recycling damaged organelles, and ejecting wastes by exocytosis
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Autolysis | the process of cell self-destruction, where lysosome membranes break down, releasing digestive enzymes into the cell and decomposing it so other cells can recycle the materials
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Peroxisome | an enzyme-containing vesicle that breaks down fatty acids and other organic compounds, produces hydrogen peroxide, and replicates by division
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Membrane flow | continuous exchange of membrane parts by vesicles that allows adaptation and change
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Mitochondrion | an organelle that takes chemical energy from glucose and produces ATP
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Cristae | inner folds in the mitochondrial membrane
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Matrix | fluid around the cristae
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Aerobic metabolism | the process by which mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP; the reactants are glucose, oxygen, and ADP, and the products are carbon dioxide, water, and ATP
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Cellular respiration | aerobic metabolism
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Glycolysis | a reaction that occurs in the cytosol that converts glucose to pyruvic acid
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Tricarboxylic cycle | a reaction that converts pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion
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Electron transport chain - look up in textbook |
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Nucleus | largest organelle, cell's control center
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Nuclear envelope | double membrane around nucleus
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Perinuclear space | area between the layers of the nuclear envelope
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Nuclear pores | communication passages between the inside of the nucleus and the cytoplasm
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Contents of the nucleus | DNA, nucleoplasm, nuclear matrix, nucleoli, nucleosomes, chromatin, chromosomes
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Purpose of DNA | contains all information to build and run organisms
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Nucleoplasm | fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA
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Nucleoli | related to protein production; made of RNA, enzymes, and histones; synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits
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Histones | proteins that bind DNA in order to compactify it
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rRNA | ribosomal RNA
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Nucleosome | one unit of chromatin
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Chromatin | complex consisting of DNA and attached proteins bound to histone cores
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Chromosome | a distinct portion of DNA that compactifies into a single unit during mitosis
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Gene | DNA instructions for one protein
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Genetic code | the chemical language of DNA instructions, consisting of four types of bases; a triplet of bases codes for a single amino acid
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Role of gene activation in protein synthesis | nucleus contains chromosomes; chromosomes contain DNA; DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins; proteins determine cell structure and function
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Steps of protein synthesis | transcription, translation, processing
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Transcription | copies instructions from DNA to mRNA
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Translation | ribosome reads code from mRNA in cytoplasm, assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain
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Processing | chaperone molecules in the RER and Golgi apparatus assist the protein in folding into the appropriate conformation
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Steps of transcribing a gene to mRNA | gene activation, DNA to mRNA, RNA processing
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Steps of gene activation | uncoils DNA, removes histones; promoter and stop codons on DNA mark location of gene; coding strand is code for protein, template strand is used by RNA polymerase
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Steps of converting DNA to mRNA | RNA polymerase binds to promoter sequence; reads DNA code for gene; binds nucleotides to form mRNA; mRNA duplicates DNA coding strand, replacing thymine with uracil
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Steps of RNA processing | at stop signal, mRNA detaches from DNA; unnecessary codes (introns) removed; good codes (exons) spliced together; three nucleotides (codon) represent one amino acid
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Steps of translation | mRNA moves from the nucleus to a ribosome and binds to ribosomal subunits; tRNA delivers amino acids to mRNA; tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon; enzymes join amino acids with peptide bonds; components separate at stop codon
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How the nucleus controls cell structure and function | direct control through synthesis of structural proteins and secretions; indirect control over metabolism through enzymes
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Permeability | the amount of freedom nutrients, products, and wastes have to cross the cell barrier
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Impermeable | lets nothing in or out
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Freely permeable | lets anything pass
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Selectively permeable | restricts movement
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Types of diffusion across plasma membranes | simple, channel-mediated
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Materials that diffuse by simple diffusion | lipid-soluble compounds, like fatty acids, steroids, and alcohols; dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide)
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Materials that pass through transmembrane proteins | water-soluble compounds and ions
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Factors in channel-mediated diffusion | size of molecule or ion, electromagnetic charge, interaction with channel
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Osmosis | diffusion of water across the cell membrane when the amount of solutes is different on either side of the membrane
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Role of osmosis in blood pressure | when Na+ ions are too concentrated in the blood stream, water in the interstitial fluid osmoses from tissue into the blood, increasing circulating volume and therefore increasing blood pressure
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Osmotic pressure | the force of a concentration gradient of water; equal to the hydrostatic pressure needed to block osmosis
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Hydrostatic pressure | pressure applied to a solution with a greater concentration of solutes which prevents water from flowing into the solution
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Osmolarity | an absolute measure of the osmotic pressure a solution exerts
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Tonicity | a relative measure of the osmotic pressure a solution exerts on a cell
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Isotonic | a solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of the cell
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Hypotonic | has less solutes and loses water by osmosis
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Hypertonic | has more solutes and gains water by osmosis
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Hemolysis | the effect of a hypotonic solution on a red blood cell; the cell ruptures due to an excess of water inside
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Crenation | the effect of a hypertonic solution on a red blood cell; the cell shrinks and wrinkles due to insufficient water inside
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Carrier-mediated transport | transport of ions and organic substrates across the cell membrane via transport proteins
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Types of carrier-mediated transport | facilitated diffusion, active transport
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Characteristics of carrier-mediated transport | specificity, saturation limits, regulation
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Specificity of carrier-mediated transport | one transport protein handles one set of substrates
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Saturation limits of carrier-mediated transport | rate of transport depends on proteins and substrate
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Regulation of carrier-mediated transport | rate of transport can be affected by cofactors such as hormones or vitamins
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Cotransport | carrier-mediated transport that involves two substrates moving simultaneously in the same direction
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Countertransport | carrier-mediated transport that involves one substrate moving in one direction while another substrate moves in the opposite direction
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Facilitated diffusion | passive carrier-mediated transport; carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins, such as glucose and amino acids; receptor is specific to certain molecules
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Active transport | moves substances against the concentration gradient; requires energy in the form of ATP or similar; ion pumps move ions, and exchange pumps countertransport multiple ions simultaneously
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Sodium-potassium exchange pump | example of active carrier-mediated transport; takes 1 ATP, moves 2 K+ and 3 Na+ ions
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Secondary active transport | cotransport; for example, Na+ serves as cofactor for glucose transport, and then is removed by exchange pump
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Vesicular transport | transporting materials using plasma-enclosed vesicles
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Endocytosis | bringing materials into the cell via a vesicle
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Exocytosis | releasing materials from the cell via a vesicle
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Receptor-mediated endocytosis | receptor glycoproteins bind to ligands; a coated vesicle, or endosome, carries the ligands and receptors into the cell
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Pinocytosis | carrying extracellular fluid into the cell via endosomes
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Phagocytosis | cell engulfs a large object, such as a prey cell or an invading bacterium, in a phagosome and digests it
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Transmembrane potential | unequal electric charge across the membrane that can range from -10 mV to -100mV at rest
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Interphase | the nondividing phase of a cell's life cycle, consisting of the G1, S, and G2 phases
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G1 phase | normal cell functions plus cell growth, duplication of organelles, and protein synthesis
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S phase | DNA replication and histone synthesis
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G2 phase | protein synthesis
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Mitosis | cell divides into two identical daughter cells; consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
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Cytokinesis | the process of separating genetic material, organelles, and proteins equally between daughter cells
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Chromosome | tightly coiled DNA that is condensed for cell division
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Chromatid | a unit of highly compacted DNA
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Centromere | the central connection for all chromatids in a chromosome
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Kinetochore | the protein complex around the centromere that attaches to the spindle fibers
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Prophase | nucleoli disappear, centriole pairs move to cell poles, microtubules extend between centriole pairs, nuclear envelope disappears, spindle fibers attach to kinetochore
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Metaphase | chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
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Metaphase plate | the central plane of a mitotic cell where chromosomes align during metaphase
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Anaphase | microtubules pull chromosomes apart, daughter chromosomes group near centrioles
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Telophase | nuclear membranes re-form, chromosomes uncoil, nucleoli reappear, cell has two complete nuclei
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Cleavage furrow | inward growth of new plasma membrane at the metaphase plate during cytokinesis, which results in membrane closure and the formation of two identical daughter cells
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Mitotic rate | the rate at which a cell divides, which determines lifespan; shorter-lived cells use more energy
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Factors that increase cell division | internal factors, such as M-phase promoting factor and MPF, and extracellular growth factors
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Factors that decrease cell division | repressor genes, which are deactivated in cancerous tumors, and worn out telomeres
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Telomere | terminal DNA segment that allows the full strand to be copied in DNA replication
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Stages of cancer development | abnormal cell, primary tumor, metastasis, secondary tumor
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Benign tumor | a mass of cancerous cells that is contained and not life-threatening
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Malignant tumor | a mass of cancerous cells that invades surrounding tissue and starts new tumors
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Metastasis | the process by which a cancerous cell splits off of the primary tumor and travels to a secondary site within the body, developing into a secondary cancerous mass
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Cell differentiation | the process by which cells develop along different paths, by turning off all genes not needed by that cell
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