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A&P Lecture Week 3

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Term
Definition
Cell theory   the theory that cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals  
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Properties of cells   come from the division of preexisting cells; smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions; maintains homeostasis at cellular level  
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Germ cells   sex cells  
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Sex cells   reproductive cells; in males, sperm; in females, oocytes  
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Somatic cells   all body cells except sex cells  
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Extracellular fluid   interstitial fluid  
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Interstitial fluid   the watery medium that surrounds each cell  
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Plasmalemma   plasma membrane  
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Plasma membrane   separates the cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid  
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Cytoplasm   composed of the cytosol and organelles  
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Functions of the plasma membrane   physical isolation, regulates exchange with environment, monitors environment, structural support  
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Membrane lipids   double layer of phospholipid molecules  
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Phospholipid   a molecule composed of a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail  
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Function of membrane lipids   serve as a barrier to ions and water-soluble compounds  
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Membrane proteins   proteins that are bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane, or which exist within the membrane  
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Integral proteins   membrane proteins that lie within the membrane  
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Peripheral proteins   membrane proteins that are bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane  
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Functional categories of membrane proteins   anchoring proteins (stabilizers), recognition proteins (identifiers), enzymes, receptor proteins, carrier proteins, channels  
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Function of anchoring proteins (stabilizers)   attach to inside or outside structures  
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Function of recognition proteins (identifiers)   label cells as normal or abnormal  
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Function of enzymes   catalyze reactions  
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Function of receptor proteins   bind and respond to ligands such as ions and hormones  
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Function of carrier proteins   transport specific solutes through membrane  
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Function of channels   regulate water flow and solutes through membrane  
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Membrane carbohydrates   composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids  
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Glycocalyx (gly·co·ca·lyx)   a sticky sugar coat of membrane carbohydrates surrounding the cell  
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Functions of glycocalyx   lubrication and protection, anchoring and locomotion, specificity in binding, recognition  
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Cytosol   intracellular fluid composed of dissolved materials; high potassium/low sodium, high protein, high carbohydrate, low amino acid and fat  
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Organelles   structures with specific functions  
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Nonmembranous organelles   includes cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and proteasomes; in direct contact with cytosol  
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Membranous organelles   includes endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria; isolated from cytosol by plasma membrane  
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Cytoskeleton   structural proteins for shape and strength  
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Types of cytoskeleton fibers   microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules  
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Microfilaments   thin filaments composed of actin  
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Functions of microfilaments   provide additional mechanical strength; interact with proteins for consistency; pair with thicker filaments of myosin for muscle movement  
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Intermediate filaments   composed of collagen, mid-sized between microfilaments and microtubules  
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Functions of intermediate filaments   create durability, strengthen cell and maintain shape, stabilize organelles, stabilize cell position  
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Microtubules   large, hollow tubes composed of tubulin  
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Functions of microtubules   attach to centrosome during mitosis, strengthen cell and anchor organelles, change cell shape, move vesicles within cells using kinesin and dynein, and form spindle apparatus  
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Microvilli   finger-like outcroppings of the cell that increase surface area for absorption and attach to cytoskeleton  
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Centrosome   cytoplasm surrounding centrioles  
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Centriole   one of 27 short microtubules that forms the spindle apparatus in cell division  
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Cilia   small hair-like extensions that move fluids across the cell surface  
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Ciliary movement   consists of a power stroke, where cilia are fully extended and stiff, and a return stroke, where cilia are soft and relaxed  
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Ribosome   builds polypeptides in protein synthesis; can be free or fixed  
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Free ribosome   manufactures proteins for secretion  
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Fixed ribosome   attached to ER, manufactures proteins for the cell  
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Proteasome   contains protease enzymes that disassemble damaged proteins for recycling  
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Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)   literally means "network (reticulum) within (endo-) the cytoplasm (-plasmic)"; contains storage chambers, or cisternae  
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Functions of the ER   synthesizes proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids; stores synthesized molecules and materials; transports materials within the ER; and detoxifies drugs and toxins  
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum   ER with no ribosomes; synthesizes phospholipids and cholesterol for membranes, steroid hormones for the reproductive system, glycerides for storage in fat and liver cells, and glycogen for storage in muscles  
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum   ER that has ribosomes all over its surface; active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis, folds polypeptide protein structures, and encloses products in transport vesicles  
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Golgi apparatus   membranous organelle that accepts vesicles via its forming face and secretes vesicles via its maturing face  
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Secretory vesicle   a vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus that modifies and packages products for exocytosis  
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Membrane renewal vesicle   a vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus that adds or removes membrane components  
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Lysosome   a powerful enzyme-containing vesicle that cleans up inside cells, and can participate in cell self-destruction  
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Primary lysosome   a lysosome created by the Golgi apparatus and inactive enzymes  
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Secondary lysosome   a lysosome fused with a damaged organelle that is isolating toxic chemicals and activating its digestive enzymes  
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How lysosomes clean up in cells   clean up inside cells by breaking down large molecules, attacking bacteria, recycling damaged organelles, and ejecting wastes by exocytosis  
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Autolysis   the process of cell self-destruction, where lysosome membranes break down, releasing digestive enzymes into the cell and decomposing it so other cells can recycle the materials  
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Peroxisome   an enzyme-containing vesicle that breaks down fatty acids and other organic compounds, produces hydrogen peroxide, and replicates by division  
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Membrane flow   continuous exchange of membrane parts by vesicles that allows adaptation and change  
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Mitochondrion   an organelle that takes chemical energy from glucose and produces ATP  
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Cristae   inner folds in the mitochondrial membrane  
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Matrix   fluid around the cristae  
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Aerobic metabolism   the process by which mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP; the reactants are glucose, oxygen, and ADP, and the products are carbon dioxide, water, and ATP  
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Cellular respiration   aerobic metabolism  
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Glycolysis   a reaction that occurs in the cytosol that converts glucose to pyruvic acid  
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Tricarboxylic cycle   a reaction that converts pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion  
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Electron transport chain - look up in textbook    
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Nucleus   largest organelle, cell's control center  
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Nuclear envelope   double membrane around nucleus  
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Perinuclear space   area between the layers of the nuclear envelope  
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Nuclear pores   communication passages between the inside of the nucleus and the cytoplasm  
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Contents of the nucleus   DNA, nucleoplasm, nuclear matrix, nucleoli, nucleosomes, chromatin, chromosomes  
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Purpose of DNA   contains all information to build and run organisms  
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Nucleoplasm   fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA  
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Nucleoli   related to protein production; made of RNA, enzymes, and histones; synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits  
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Histones   proteins that bind DNA in order to compactify it  
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rRNA   ribosomal RNA  
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Nucleosome   one unit of chromatin  
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Chromatin   complex consisting of DNA and attached proteins bound to histone cores  
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Chromosome   a distinct portion of DNA that compactifies into a single unit during mitosis  
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Gene   DNA instructions for one protein  
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Genetic code   the chemical language of DNA instructions, consisting of four types of bases; a triplet of bases codes for a single amino acid  
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Role of gene activation in protein synthesis   nucleus contains chromosomes; chromosomes contain DNA; DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins; proteins determine cell structure and function  
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Steps of protein synthesis   transcription, translation, processing  
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Transcription   copies instructions from DNA to mRNA  
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Translation   ribosome reads code from mRNA in cytoplasm, assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain  
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Processing   chaperone molecules in the RER and Golgi apparatus assist the protein in folding into the appropriate conformation  
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Steps of transcribing a gene to mRNA   gene activation, DNA to mRNA, RNA processing  
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Steps of gene activation   uncoils DNA, removes histones; promoter and stop codons on DNA mark location of gene; coding strand is code for protein, template strand is used by RNA polymerase  
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Steps of converting DNA to mRNA   RNA polymerase binds to promoter sequence; reads DNA code for gene; binds nucleotides to form mRNA; mRNA duplicates DNA coding strand, replacing thymine with uracil  
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Steps of RNA processing   at stop signal, mRNA detaches from DNA; unnecessary codes (introns) removed; good codes (exons) spliced together; three nucleotides (codon) represent one amino acid  
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Steps of translation   mRNA moves from the nucleus to a ribosome and binds to ribosomal subunits; tRNA delivers amino acids to mRNA; tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon; enzymes join amino acids with peptide bonds; components separate at stop codon  
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How the nucleus controls cell structure and function   direct control through synthesis of structural proteins and secretions; indirect control over metabolism through enzymes  
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Permeability   the amount of freedom nutrients, products, and wastes have to cross the cell barrier  
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Impermeable   lets nothing in or out  
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Freely permeable   lets anything pass  
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Selectively permeable   restricts movement  
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Types of diffusion across plasma membranes   simple, channel-mediated  
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Materials that diffuse by simple diffusion   lipid-soluble compounds, like fatty acids, steroids, and alcohols; dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide)  
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Materials that pass through transmembrane proteins   water-soluble compounds and ions  
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Factors in channel-mediated diffusion   size of molecule or ion, electromagnetic charge, interaction with channel  
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Osmosis   diffusion of water across the cell membrane when the amount of solutes is different on either side of the membrane  
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Role of osmosis in blood pressure   when Na+ ions are too concentrated in the blood stream, water in the interstitial fluid osmoses from tissue into the blood, increasing circulating volume and therefore increasing blood pressure  
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Osmotic pressure   the force of a concentration gradient of water; equal to the hydrostatic pressure needed to block osmosis  
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Hydrostatic pressure   pressure applied to a solution with a greater concentration of solutes which prevents water from flowing into the solution  
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Osmolarity   an absolute measure of the osmotic pressure a solution exerts  
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Tonicity   a relative measure of the osmotic pressure a solution exerts on a cell  
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Isotonic   a solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of the cell  
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Hypotonic   has less solutes and loses water by osmosis  
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Hypertonic   has more solutes and gains water by osmosis  
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Hemolysis   the effect of a hypotonic solution on a red blood cell; the cell ruptures due to an excess of water inside  
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Crenation   the effect of a hypertonic solution on a red blood cell; the cell shrinks and wrinkles due to insufficient water inside  
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Carrier-mediated transport   transport of ions and organic substrates across the cell membrane via transport proteins  
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Types of carrier-mediated transport   facilitated diffusion, active transport  
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Characteristics of carrier-mediated transport   specificity, saturation limits, regulation  
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Specificity of carrier-mediated transport   one transport protein handles one set of substrates  
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Saturation limits of carrier-mediated transport   rate of transport depends on proteins and substrate  
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Regulation of carrier-mediated transport   rate of transport can be affected by cofactors such as hormones or vitamins  
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Cotransport   carrier-mediated transport that involves two substrates moving simultaneously in the same direction  
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Countertransport   carrier-mediated transport that involves one substrate moving in one direction while another substrate moves in the opposite direction  
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Facilitated diffusion   passive carrier-mediated transport; carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins, such as glucose and amino acids; receptor is specific to certain molecules  
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Active transport   moves substances against the concentration gradient; requires energy in the form of ATP or similar; ion pumps move ions, and exchange pumps countertransport multiple ions simultaneously  
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Sodium-potassium exchange pump   example of active carrier-mediated transport; takes 1 ATP, moves 2 K+ and 3 Na+ ions  
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Secondary active transport   cotransport; for example, Na+ serves as cofactor for glucose transport, and then is removed by exchange pump  
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Vesicular transport   transporting materials using plasma-enclosed vesicles  
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Endocytosis   bringing materials into the cell via a vesicle  
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Exocytosis   releasing materials from the cell via a vesicle  
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Receptor-mediated endocytosis   receptor glycoproteins bind to ligands; a coated vesicle, or endosome, carries the ligands and receptors into the cell  
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Pinocytosis   carrying extracellular fluid into the cell via endosomes  
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Phagocytosis   cell engulfs a large object, such as a prey cell or an invading bacterium, in a phagosome and digests it  
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Transmembrane potential   unequal electric charge across the membrane that can range from -10 mV to -100mV at rest  
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Interphase   the nondividing phase of a cell's life cycle, consisting of the G1, S, and G2 phases  
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G1 phase   normal cell functions plus cell growth, duplication of organelles, and protein synthesis  
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S phase   DNA replication and histone synthesis  
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G2 phase   protein synthesis  
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Mitosis   cell divides into two identical daughter cells; consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase  
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Cytokinesis   the process of separating genetic material, organelles, and proteins equally between daughter cells  
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Chromosome   tightly coiled DNA that is condensed for cell division  
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Chromatid   a unit of highly compacted DNA  
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Centromere   the central connection for all chromatids in a chromosome  
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Kinetochore   the protein complex around the centromere that attaches to the spindle fibers  
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Prophase   nucleoli disappear, centriole pairs move to cell poles, microtubules extend between centriole pairs, nuclear envelope disappears, spindle fibers attach to kinetochore  
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Metaphase   chromosomes align at the metaphase plate  
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Metaphase plate   the central plane of a mitotic cell where chromosomes align during metaphase  
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Anaphase   microtubules pull chromosomes apart, daughter chromosomes group near centrioles  
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Telophase   nuclear membranes re-form, chromosomes uncoil, nucleoli reappear, cell has two complete nuclei  
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Cleavage furrow   inward growth of new plasma membrane at the metaphase plate during cytokinesis, which results in membrane closure and the formation of two identical daughter cells  
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Mitotic rate   the rate at which a cell divides, which determines lifespan; shorter-lived cells use more energy  
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Factors that increase cell division   internal factors, such as M-phase promoting factor and MPF, and extracellular growth factors  
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Factors that decrease cell division   repressor genes, which are deactivated in cancerous tumors, and worn out telomeres  
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Telomere   terminal DNA segment that allows the full strand to be copied in DNA replication  
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Stages of cancer development   abnormal cell, primary tumor, metastasis, secondary tumor  
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Benign tumor   a mass of cancerous cells that is contained and not life-threatening  
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Malignant tumor   a mass of cancerous cells that invades surrounding tissue and starts new tumors  
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Metastasis   the process by which a cancerous cell splits off of the primary tumor and travels to a secondary site within the body, developing into a secondary cancerous mass  
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Cell differentiation   the process by which cells develop along different paths, by turning off all genes not needed by that cell  
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