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Midterm

Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in each of the black spaces below before clicking on it to display the answer.
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Question
Answer
Hierarchy for Organisms   KPCOFGS Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species  
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Prokarotic   single cells, NO nucleus or cellular organelles. Ex: Bacteria/Eubacteria/Archaebacteria  
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Eurkaryotic   multi cellular, have nucleus, - plants, animals, fungi, protista  
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Mutations   source of variation, in DNA, most are harmful  
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Adaptive Traits ( non harmful mutations)   gives an individual an advantage to survive, ie: sickle cell survives malaria; certain bacteria only live in hot environments  
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Evolution   occurs in population, not person, occurs in DNA. Ex: smaller jaw, obsolete appendix, little toe shrinking,  
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Artificial Selection   breeders favor some traits, breed them. Size of tomatoes, tangelos, labradoodles  
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Natural Selection   "survival of the fittest" = whether or not ones genes are included in the next generation  
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Scientific Method   1 Observe 2 Develop Hypothesis 3 Make a prediction 4 Test 5 Analyze the results / Conclusion  
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Element   fundamental form of matter, can't be broken apart naturally  
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Biological CHNOPS   most common elements in a living organisms: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfer  
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Atoms   smallest particles that retain properties of an element. Have Protons, Neutrons, Electrons.  
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Atomic Number   the number of protons in an element  
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Mass Number   the number of protons AND neutrons  
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Ionic Bond   2 atoms exchange electrons, transferred. *Broken with water*  
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Covalent Bond   2 atoms share electrons  
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Hydrogen Bond   occur between hydrogen and nitrogen or hydrogen and oxygen. *Within ajacent molecules. Weak individually, Very Strong in large numbers. **The only way to break a hydrogen bond is with heat***  
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Ions   formed when an element gains or loses e- making it + or -  
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90% of cells are   water  
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Water   Polar. Solvent. Cohesive (molecules bound tightly). Temperature Stabilizing Effect.  
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Specific Heat   amount of energy needed to change one gram one degree celsius  
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Hydrophilic   Love water. Polar, dissolves in water .. sugar, salt.  
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Hydrophobic   Non polar, doesn't dissolve in water .. oil.  
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pH scale   the measure of hydrogen ions in a solution  
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Acidic   more H+, donate H+, lower pH, produce H when react with metal, OJ, tomatoes, coffee ; begins with H = acid; HCl  
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Basic   fewer H+, accept H+, when electrolyzed they release -OH, cleaners, milk of magnesium, bleach ; ends with OH = base; NaOH  
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All life is made of Carbon   6 on periodic table, 6 protons, 6 neutrons, mass number = 12.  
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Neutrons are sticky   they're inbetween the protons to keep the nucleus together  
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What kind of bonds does Carbon choose ?   covalent, can bond with itself - single, double, or triple bonds.  
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Lipids   insulation, energy ; cholesteral, waxes, fats. Cell membranes are two layers of lipids.  
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Saturated/Unsaturated   Sat - single bonds Unsat - one or more double bonds  
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Carbohydrates (-ose)   used for energy, respiration, and make up exoskeletons, covalent bonds  
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Monosaccharides   dioxyribose  
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Polysaccharides   ribose  
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Proteins   form blood, hair, nails, muscles and enzymes. ** DNA makes protein.  
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Amino acids   20 naturally occur. Peptide bonds.  
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AA Primary / Secondary   sequence of AA / twist, pleated sheet, alphahelix  
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AA Tertiary / Quaternary   twisted bonded shape / 4 tertiaries  
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Cells are measured in   micrometers, their parts are measured in nanometers  
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Why aren't cells bigger?   They rely on the cell membrane to transport everything. Oxygen can't diffuse that far. **Surface Area to Volume Ratio **  
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Cell Theory   1 - All living things are made of cells. 2 - the cell is the smallest unit having the properties of life. 3 - Continuity of life arises directly from growth and cell division of single cells.  
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Three Basic Parts of a Cell   1) Cell Membrane (2) DNA containing region (3) Cytoplasm containing ribosomes (to transcribe DNA)  
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Cell Membrane   made of phospholipids, double membrane, hydrophillic heads with hydrophobic tails. They are fluid mosiacs.  
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Chromatin   All DNA associated proteins in the nucleus  
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ER   bends proteins into shape  
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Golgi body   transports protein out of the cell  
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Lysosomes   waste disposal  
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Vacuoles   *in plants* controls the water levels  
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Mitochondrion   site of respiration, makes ATP  
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Cristae   squiggle in mitochondra  
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Chloroplasts   *in plants* contains thylakoids, site of photosynthesis  
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Buffers   stop a change in pH, soaks up H+, keeps solution neutral, blood is a buffer  
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The higher things go, the _____ potential energy it hass   greater  
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Energy is the   capacity to do work  
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Energy cannot be   created nor destroyed  
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Energy flows from   high to low, down the concentration gradient, with heat being the least useful form  
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Every conversion of energy releases   heat.  
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As a system loses energy   it becomes more disorganized.  
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Entropy   the measure of disorder of a system  
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ATP   made of Adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphates  
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Each glucose produces, how many ATP?   36  
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Phosphates are bound by   high energy bonds  
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Metabolism   is directional, down the concentration gradient, releases energy/heat. It either makes something ~ photosynthesis, or uses something up ~ respiration  
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Endergonic   the rxn needs a kick start  
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Exergonic   spontaneous and release energy.  
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Exothermic Rxn   gives off more energy than it uses to start  
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Endothermic Rxn   uses more energy to begin than it gives off  
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Enzymes   lowers necessary activation energy, can be reused, specific to certain parts of the reactions,  
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All enzymes are   proteins. They only work in certain temperatures, pHs and salinities.  
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Heterotrophs   feed on other things  
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Autotrophs   produce their own food  
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1st stage of photosynthesis   Requires light. Water is split by light, drives out e-, when it goes back to ground state, it releases energy, the e- get caught in the chlorophyll, finally releasing oxygen, occurs in and out of the membranes of the chloroplasts stacks.  
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2nd stage of photosynthsis   independent of light.  
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Fermentation   yeast cells > only produce 2 ATP per 1 glucose, an aerobic conditions; produces alcohol  
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Aerobic Respiration   mitochondria releases 36 ATP  
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Electron transport chains   (photosynthesis and aerobic respiration) yields 32 ATP  
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Lactic acid   builds up in muscles, lack of oxygen, cramps  
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Why do cells divide?   to allow us to be more complex, to grow, to reproduce offspring ;; to repair and replace dead cells  
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Prokaryotes reproduce...   through fission, ~asexual~  
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Eukaryotes reproduce..   by mitosis and meiosis ;; sexual  
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Chromosomes   very tightly coiled DNA, coiled around histones  
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Humans have ___ chromosomes   46 with 23 pairs.  
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22 pairs are   autosomal ; one pair controls our sexQuaterary  
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Mitosis   chromosomes duplicate, two daughter cells just like parent cell  
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Cancer is   cell division our of control  
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Alleles   different forms of the gene  
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Meiosis   Parent is diploid, chromosomes duplicate, cell splits, then splits again. 4 haploids are produced.  
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Nondisjunction   occurs when incorrect # of chromosomes end up in a gamete cell  
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Monohybrid   one allele pair  
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Homozygous   the alleles are the same  
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Heterozygous   the alleles are different  
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Back cross/test cross   uses a double recessive to test pure breed  
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DNA is made up of   nucleotides  
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Nucleotides are   three molecules -- phosphate, pentose sugar, nitrogen base  
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Purines   two rings, adenine, guanine  
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Pyrimidines   one ring, thymine, cytosine, uracil  
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# of Hydrogen bonds btwn A&T   2  
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# of Hydrogen bonds btwn C&G   3  
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These check to be sure there were no mistakes made in replication   Enzymes  
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Replication   DNA makes DNA  
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Transcription   DNA makes RNA  
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Translation   RNA makes protein  
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RNA   a copy of one side, single strand, has NO thymine, Uracil instead,  
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3 nucleotide bases =   a codon  
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AUG   is the start codon  
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mRNA, rRNA, tRNA   messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA  
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Deletion in transcriptions   can cause the ribosome to miss the cue to start making proteins, and certain proteins are left out. *deletions cause frameshift mutations* Ex: cystic fibrosis  
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