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Cells and Tissues - Dr. Farmer - Test 1

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Question
Answer
Merocrine Secretion   Membrane-bound secretory granules in cytoplasm, released via exocytosis from apical cell surface, most common, salivary glands, pancreas  
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Holocrine Secretion   Cells accumulate secretions, die, release contents, high mitotic rate, sebaceous glands  
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Apocrine Secretions   Secretions accumulate in apical cytoplasm, released by pinching off portion of apical region of cell, loss of some cytoplasm and cell membrane, lipid secretion of mammary gland  
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Serous Acinus Secretion   Thin watery with proteins, Pyramidal cells with basal nuclei, Secretory granules in apical cytoplasm, small central lumen  
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Mucous Acinus Secretion   More viscous, high carbs, pyramidal cell with basal nuclei, clear cytoplasm, large central lumen  
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Mixed Acinus Secretion   Mucous acinus with serous demilune, intracellular channels deliver serous secretions to lumen  
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Alpha   Cis  
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H2O   75 to 85 percent of cell weight, polar bond angles, H bonds between moles, solvent, inert, hydrophilic/phobic, amphipathic  
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Carbon   4 bonds (covalent), OCHN, single, double, triple bonds, stable high energy required, 4 diff grps - asymmetric C - chiral center  
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Hydrophobic interactions   Interior of moles sequestered from H2O, between nonpolar moles (lipids)  
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van der Waals forces? Examples?   weaker than H bonds, macromolecules where double covalent bonds exist (aromatic rings of amino acids), stacked bases in DNA  
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Hydrogen bond? Examples?   Weaker than covalent/ionic, H and O in separate H2O moles, DNA, proteins (H and N or O), Planar, stables in large moles with H bonds, secondary protein structure  
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Ionic Bond? Examples?   Electronegative element removes e- from other atom, CL, NA, Soluble crystals formed  
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Nonpolar covalent bond   E-s shared equally  
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Polar covalent bond? Examples?   One atom has e- more than the other, O, N or H2O  
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Covalent bond   Shared pair of e-, polar or nonpolar  
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Trace elements   Fe, Zn, Mg, Co (I'M CoZi)  
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Macronutrients   C, H, O, P, N, S (CHOPNS)  
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Water % of cell   75 to 85  
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Sphingolipids   In membranes, based on sphingosine (amino alcohol), adds long chain FA to form ceramide, Amphipathic  
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Phospholipids   In membranes, Phosphate replaces one FA, Alcohol (sering, ethanolamine, choline, inositol) on phosphate, amphipathic, water-soluble  
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Triglycerides   True fats, glycerol and 3 fatty acids, saturated - all single, unsat - 1 or more double (shape changes), fats - sat, oils - unsat  
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Lipid Classes   Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, steroids, terpenes (isoprenoids)  
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Lipids   Hydrophobic, soluble in nonpolar (chloroform and ether), hydrocarbon chains with C and H, some amphipathic (phosphate or sugar groups)  
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Polypeptide Functions   Enzymes, Structural, Motor, Transport, Storage, Signal, Receptors, Regulate Gene Expression  
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Tertiary Structure   Long-distance interactions within polypeptide to form multimeric structure (4 subunits like hemoglobin)  
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Secondary Structure   Alpha - helix, Beta - pleated sheet, determined by H bonding  
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Respiration / Energy Generation   Cytoplasm - glycolysis (breakdown 6C glucose to 2 pyruvate (3C) and makes small amount of ATP), Mitochondrial Matrix - TCA Cycle (Pyruvate into acetyl CoA into TCA cycle into ATP, reduces e- attached to NADH+ and FADH2)  
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Respiration / Energy Generation con't.   Inner Membrane - ETS (Proteins transfer e- through ETS carriers to ATPsynthase into large amount of ATP (requires O2)  
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Golgi   Process and package of secreted proteins, integrals, lysosomals, glycosylation of glycoproteins, receives RER proteins via vesicles, process leave in vesicles for cell membrane  
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Lysosomes   Acid phosphatase (breakdown macros), take vacuole in to digest, cell recycling, more than 40 hydrolytic enzymes (lipases, nucleases, proteases, carbohydrases), active in acidic environment (protective mechanism so inactive in cytoplasm)  
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Mitochondrion   Double membrane, cristae - proteins of ETS (carrier proteins and ATPsynthase), circular DNA and ribosomes, matrix - enzymes of TCA cycle and beta-oxidation of fatty acids  
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Peroxisomes   microbodies, kidney and liver cells, contain catalase and peroxidase, generate and breakdown H2O2 into H2O and O2, breakdown (oxidize) long-chain fatty acides (increase to 22C)  
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Ribosomes   Protein synthesis, Ribosomal proteins and rRNA composition, Prokaryotic and eukaryotic, differ though, 2 subunites (Large and small), found in mitochondria, cytoplasm, attached to RER  
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Cytoskeleton   Give shape, cellular movement (internal - chromosomes in cell division, external - cilia and flagella), provide binding sites for organelles, control vesicular traffic, microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments  
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Microtubules   alpha and beta tubulin, generated at MTOC, cilia and flagella, positioning of organelles, movement of cells, movement of organelles, changes in cell shape (embryogenesis)  
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Microfilaments   Actin, g- (globular) actin, f- (filamentous) actin, muscle contraction, amoeboid movement of phagocytes, cytoplasmic streaming, cleavage furrow in cell division  
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Intermediate Filaments   Fibrous, more diverse than others (composition), differ in each cell type, mechanical strength, stable once synthesized  
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Protein production   nucleus transcribes mRNA, RER translates polypeptide into lumen, adds sugar residues, transports vesicles to Golgi, Golgi completes glycosylation if needed, transport/secretory vesicles carry protein to plasma membrane  
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ER   Rough - ribosomes, protein synthesis; Smooth - no ribosomes, lipids and steroid synthesis, drug detox, sequesters Ca ions in muscle cells  
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Membrane proteins   Amphipathic, integral (transmembrane), glucose; Extrinsic (peripheral) - cytoplasmic or extracellular; Glycoproteins - sugar residues outside cell, recognition sites, immunity;enzymes(protein/ATPsynthase), transport (glucose),receptors (hormones)  
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Nucleus   Holds genetic info, nuclear envelope, DNA, nucleolus, replicates DNA, transcribes DNA to mRNA for protein synthesis  
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Nuclear envelope   Double membrane (outer layer continuous with ER), lipid bilayer, nuclear pores (passage between nucleus and cytoplasm)  
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DNA   2 complementary strands of nucelotides with H bonds between bases, chromatin - DNA with histone proteins (hetero - condensed, more histones, inactive; eu - pale, less histones, active), forms chromosomes  
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Nucleolus   Synthesis and organization of ribosomes  
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Plasma membrane   Controls passage in and out, barrier between internal and external environment, maintains ion and charge gradients, phospholipid bilayer (fluid mosaic model)  
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tRNA   transfers amino acids that match RNA template  
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Regulatory RNA   Gene formation  
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rRNA   makes ribosomes  
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mRNA   makes proteins  
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RNA   Adenine and Uracil, Cytosine and Guanine, single strand, mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, regulatory RNA  
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Uses of nucleic acids   storage - DNA, expression - RNA, utilizable chemical energy in cell  
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DNA   Adenine and Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine, double-strand  
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Nucleic Acids   Made of nucleotides  
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Purines   Larger than pyrimidines, Adenine or Guanine  
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Pyrimidines   Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine  
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Nucleic Acid Synthesis   Adjacents joined by phosphodiester bond (between phosphate and sugar), bond provides directionality (5 prime phosphate, 3 prime hydroxyl, always 5 to 3)  
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Adhesive junctions   Zonula adherens, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes  
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Zonula adherens   Cadherin (Ca++ dependent protein) of adjacent cells bind, actin microfilaments in cortex anchor cadherin  
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Desmosomes   Similar to zonula adherens, disc-shaped, cytoplasmic intermediate filaments anchor proteins  
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Hemidesmosomes   Integrins, not cadherins, attached to ECM  
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Gap junctions   Communications, passage of ions and small moles, connexons (6 subunits of connexin), cardiac and smooth muscle, allow multiple cells to act as a single unit  
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Disaccharides   2 monosaccharides with glycosidic bond, sucrose (table sugar - glucose and fructose), lactose (galactose and glucose)  
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Stratified cuboidal epithelium   2 layers of cuboidal cells, sweat gland ducts  
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Stratified columnar epithelium   2 layers - upper is columnar, large duct of salivary gland, palpebral conjunctiva (inner lining of eyelid)  
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Transitional epithelium   Mutliple layers, superficial dome cells (rounded to flattened) based on distention, renal calyces to urethra  
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Glandular epithelium   Outgrowth of surface epithelium, exocrine - ducts on surface, endocrine - no ducts on surface  
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Unicellular Endocrine Glands   Enteroendocrine cells of digestive tract  
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Unicellular exocrine glands   Goblet cells of digestive and repiratory tracts  
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Multicellular exocrine glands   Simple (unbranched ducts) or compound (branched ducts), acinar or alveloar - round saclike, tubular 0 elongated, tubuloalveolar - mixed  
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Multicellular exocrine types   Simple tubular - crypts of Lieberkuhn (colon), simple coiled tubular - sweat glands, simple branched tubular - fundic glands of stomach, simple alveloar - none in humans, simple branched alveolar - sebaceous glands  
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Multicellular exocrine types con't.   Compound tubular - cardiac glands of stomach, compound alveolar - pancreas, compound tubuloalveolar - salivary glands  
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Cell Junctions - What are they? Functions?   Modifications of plasma membrane, provide anchoring of adjacent cells to each other, provide cytoplasmic continuity  
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Tight Junctions   Seal cell-lined compartments, fuse adjacent plasma membranes, prevent water-solubles from passing through ECM, protein strands fuse together, maintains polarity (proteins stay at apical or basal / lateral surface), disrupted by Ca concentration decreasing  
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Stratified squamous epithelium   Superficial squamous layer, keratinized (skin) - anucleate - waterproof barrier, nonkeratinized - living, nucelate, vocal cords, esophagus, vagina, oral cavity  
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Simple squamous epithelium   Cobblestones, alveoli, parietal layer (Bowman's capsule). thin loop of henle  
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Simple cuboidal epithelium   Central nucleus, thyroid follicles, proximal, distal, collecting kidney tubules, small salivary glands, germinal epithelium of ovary  
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Simple columnar epithelium   Elongated nucleus, basally located, papillary ducts of kidneys, intestinal and gall bladder lining, fallopian tubes  
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Pseudostratified epithelium   All cells rest on basal lamina, not all reach apical surface, different heights of nuclei, frequently ciliated, tracheal, brochial, bronchiole lining, epidydimal and urethral (male) lining  
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Characteristics of epithelial tissue   Avascular, contiguous, little extracellular matrix, polarized, undergo renewal, basal lamina (basement membrane)  
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Epithelial functions   Selectively permeable barrier, protection, secretion, absorption, transcellular transport, sensation  
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Mesoderm forms?   Endothelium of blood vessels, mesothelium of cavities, kidney tubules, reproductive lining  
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Nucleotides   Nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine), pentose sugar, phosphate  
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Endoderm forms?   Respiratory and digestive lining, digestive glands  
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Internal regulation   Cyclins, maturation promoting factor (MPF)  
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External regulation   Growth factors bind to specific receptors on cell surface, send signals to components  
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G0   In cells that can exit cycle for varying lengths of time, cardiac and neurons permanently exit, hepatocytes about 1 year, entered from G1  
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M   Mitosis, 1 to 2 hours  
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G2   Gap 2 or post-synthetic, 3 to 6 hours, tubulin synthesis for microtubules, checkpoint for DNA repair  
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S   Synthetic phase, DNA synthesis, 6 to 8 hours, conservative replication maintains genetic integrity, centrioles required for mitotic spindle replicated  
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G1   Variable in length, Gap 1 or pre-synthetic phase, cell growth, protein synthesis, checkpoint prior to S (favorable for division? DNA intact?)  
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Anaphase   Chromatids move to opposite poles  
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Metaphase   Chomosomes migrate to equatorial plate, separate into sister chromatids, chromatids attach to opposite centrosomes via microtubules  
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Prophase   Chromatin condenses - chromosomes visible, nuclear envelope breaks down, centrosomes (pair of centrioles) separate to opposite poles, microtubules connect centrioles to chromosomes  
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Karyokinesis   Nuclear division, PMAT  
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MPF   Maturation Promoting Factor, M-Cdk, Cyclin M plus kinase, rapid increase in concentration, triggers cell mitosis  
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Telophase   Nuclear envelope regenerated, chromosomes disperse  
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Cytokinesis   Cytoplasm division, band of actin filaments form at equatorial plate, band constriction separates cytoplasm, occurs during anaphase, completes in telophase  
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Apoptosis   Programmed cell death, embryonic development, normal reorganization of tissues, developeing hand and foot, adult tissue - balance cell division, removes cells that are damaged or ineffectivem nucleus condenses and breaks up, cell surface blebs,no inflam  
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Cyclins   Bind to specific kinases (Cdks - cyclin-dependent kinases) to regulate interphase, concentration increases during interphase  
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What are tissues?   Group of cells that carry out similar functions, includes cells and ECM  
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Tissue types?   Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous  
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Types of epithelial tissue   Surface, glandular  
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Surface epithelium   Arranged in cell sheets, covers surfaces, lines cavities  
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Glandular epithelium   Skin, mouth lining, nose, anus  
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Microvilli   About 1 micrometer long, covered with glycocalys (sugar linked to lipids and proteins), brush (striated) border, apical surfaces of absorptive cells, core of actin arranged longitudinally, not motile  
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Stereocilia   Long length (misnamed), long branched microvilli, increase surface area  
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Cilia/flagella   About 5 to 10 micrometers or longer, axoneme, 9 doublets of MT around 2 single MT (9 +2), axonemal dynein - motor, ATP required, supportive proteins, basal body (cyto base of axoneme) 9 triplets, no central (9 +0)  
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Mitosis   Cell division  
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Interphase   All other cell events, variable in length  
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Phases of cell cycle   G1, S, G2, M, G0  
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Primary Structure   Amino acid sequence  
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Polypeptides   Chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds, specific order for each, translation (protein synthesis), monomeric, multimeric  
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Polar charged - #? Examples?   Basic (3) - Lysine, Acidic (2) - Aspartame, Glutamine  
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Polar Uncharged - #? Examples?   6, hydrophilic, Cysteine  
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Beta   Trans  
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Nonpolar hydrophobic - #? Examples?   9 - lack O or N in functional group, Leucine, Tryptophan  
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Amino Acids   20 - peptide (covalent) bond between amine and carboxyl group, nonpolar hydrophobic, polar uncharged, polar charged, D- and L- forms  
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Protein structure   Amino acids, poly peptides  
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Principle of self-assembly   Inherent in macromolecules, proteins as translated on ribosome, onley need polypeptide for folding and configuration, assisted for larger more complex (more than 1 polypeptide), requires chaperone (not part of, transiently binds and prevents interaction)  
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Glycolipids   In membranes, carb replaces phosphate, amphipathic, outer surface of plasma membrane  
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Steroids   3 6C rings and 1 5C ring, cholesterol (promotes fluidity), amphipathic (HO at 3C), membranes, source of androgens, estrogens, glucocorticoids (cortisol) and mineral corticoids (aldosterone)  
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Examples of monosaccharides   Aldosugars - terminal CO, Ketosugars (internal CO), Hexose (6C - glucose, straight or ring), Pentose (5C - Ribose or deoxyribose, nucleic acid component)  
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Monosaccharides   Monomers of simple sugars, glycosidic bonds  
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Structural polysaccharides   Cellulose - plants only  
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Storage polysaccharides   Starch - plants, glycogen - animals  
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Polysaccharides   Storage adn structure, mono- or di-  
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Terpenes   aka Isoprenoids, derived from isoprene (5C), synthesis of vitamin A, CoQ, carotenoid pigments  
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What occurs during polymerization?   Releases H2O (condensation), must have reactive H and OH (adds here), requires ATP and phosphate group, transfer RNA, directionality  
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Polymerization   Synthesis from smaller molecules  
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Made of? Proteins? Nucleic Acids? Lipids? Polysaccharide?   Amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids with glycerol, sugars  
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