Exam 1
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| What is biology? | The study of life
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| What is science? | nothing more than a logical inquiry concerning the world (universe) around us
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| What are scientific questions? | What, when, where, how, who
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| What is NOT a scientific question? | Why
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| What type of data is considered in science? | Empirical
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| What is empirical data? | Measurable data that constitutes a reasonable explanation for some phenomena
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| What are the 5 Characteristics of Life? | Organization, Energy & Metabolism, Homeostasis, Irritability & Adaptation, Reproduction, Growth & Development
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| What is organization? | All living organisms consist of at least one cell (basic unit of life) "cell theory"
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| What is energy use & metabolism? | Maintain structure by taking up chemicals and energy from the environment
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| What is homeostasis? | Maintenance of internal consistency
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| What is irritability & adaptation? | Respond to stimuli in the external environment
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| What is reproduction, growth & development? | Reproduce and pass on their organization to their offspring
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| How is life defined? | Living things are recognized by certain common activities and properties, e.g., order
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| What are cells? | The basic structural and functional unit of life
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| What is the cell theory? | All life has at least the cellular level of organization.
Cells arise from preexisting cells
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| Who discovered the cell theory? | Schleiden & Schwann
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| What are the two main types of cells? | Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
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| What is DNA? | Heritable information.
The continuity of life.
Double stranded helix.
Codes for tremendous biological diversity & can be copied with great fidelity
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| How is DNA organized? | Genes
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| How are genes organized? | Chromosomes
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| What are the four subunits that make up the double stranded helix? | Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Guanine (G)
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| Who elucidated the structure of DNA, & when did it happen? | Watson & Crick, 1953
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| What are emergent properties? | Function of a "thing" (e.g., protein, cell, pancreas, digestive system, or rabbit) is the culmination of molecules that are arranged in a specific "order".
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| What is reductionism? | Big -> small
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| What is the organization of matter in the biosphere? | Subatomic particle, atoms, molecules, macromolecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
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| What are chemical reactions in the cell that are regulated? | Enzymes, negative feedback, positive feedback
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| What do regulatory mechanisms do? | Allow physiology to be maintained within narrow limits
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| Where does energy flow? | Through the ecosystem
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| Where do nutrients cycle? | Through the environment
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| What is the 1st Law of Thermodynamics? | Energy (matter) CANNOT be destroyed or created, ONLY changed in its form (E=MC^2)
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| What is the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics? | All energy (matter) transformations are inefficient (i.e., less than 100%) and some energy is lost as heat.
Energy & matter move randomly and from a greater to a lesser concentration
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| What are the three domains of life? | Bacteria, archaea, eukarya
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| How are organisms cataloged? | Taxonomy
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| What is the order of the taxonomic scheme from biggest to smallest? | Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
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| What is evolution? | Theory that gene frequencies change over time.
Most important unifying concept in modern biology.
Change in a population over time.
Speciation.
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| How are structure and function related? | Correlated.
Form fits function.
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| What is discovery science & induction? | Observation of many specifics to generate a generalized conclusion
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| What is hypothetic-deductive science? | Begins with a general "idea" and through testing produces specific conclusions
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| What is serendipity? | Luck
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| What is the scientific method? | 1. Observation
2. Hypothesis
3. Experimentation (repeatable)
4. a) Accept Hypothesis
b) Reject Hypothesis
5. a) Theory or Law
b) Modify hypothesis; return to step 2
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| What is technology? | The way the average person encounters science.
Applies scientific knowledge
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| What are the requirements of life? | C, H, O, N, P, S
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| What is the atomic number? | The atoms of an element have a particular number of protons.
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| What does the atomic number equal? | Number of Protons & Electrons
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| What is the mass number? | Number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
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| What is mass number a close approximation for? | Atomic Weight
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| What are isotopes? | Atoms with different mass numbers.
Variations in neutron numbers results.
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| What are unstable isotopes? | Radioisotopes.
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| How do radioisotopes decay? | By emission of energy and subatomic particles; therefore transforms an isotope into an atom of a different element.
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| What are energy shells? | Electrons that occupy space around nucleus
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| What are valence electrons? | Electrons in outermost energy shell
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| What do valence electrons determine? | Chemical reactivity
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| What is a molecule? | Two or more atoms that have come together
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| What is a compound? | A molecule that has more than one atomic species
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| What are weak bonds? | Electrical forces of attraction.
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| What are weak bonds important in? | Proteins
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| What are hydrogen bonds? | Fairly weak bond between positively charged Hydrogen atoms and some negatively charged atoms.
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| What are hydrogen bonds common in? | DNA
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| What are ionic bonds? | Donating electrons. Once an atom "gives" away one of its electrons or accepts one, the atom becomes VERY charged (polar). Many ionic bonds are water soluble?
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| What are covalent bonds? | Sharing of electrons
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| What is the strongest chemical bond? | Covalent bonds
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| What types of bonds do most proteins have in them? | All four chemical bonds: weak, hydrogen, ionic, and covalent
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| What happens to ionic bonds in water? | Ionic bonds disassociate in water.
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| What are the two types of covalent bonds? | Polar and nonpolar
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| What are polar covalent bonds? | Refers to a molecule's tendency to be attracted to water or anything that has an opposite charge (like magnets)
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| What are nonpolar covalent bonds? | Refers to a molecule's tendency to be repelled by water or anything that has a charge ( + / - )
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| What are Van der Waals Interactions? | Weak bonds formed when molecules come into close proximity and where the charges of these molecules match (like magnets).
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| What type of interaction is common in how enzymes do their "work"? | Van der Waals Interactions
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| What is a hydrophobic molecule? | Refers to a molecule or a region of a macromolecules tendency to repel water
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| What is a hydrophillic molecule? | Refers to a molecule or a region of a macromolecules tendency to attract water
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| What is the "Solvent of Life"? | Water
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| What are the properties of water? | Hydrogen bonding, cohesive properties (surface tension), temperature stabilizing effects (evaporation), good solvent for polar or charged substances
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| What is cohesion? | The tendency for dissimilar molecules to stick together
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| What is adhesion? | The tendency for similar molecules to stick together
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| What is a calorie? | The amount of heat needed to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree celcius
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| What is a solution with a pH less than 7 classified as? | Acid
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| What is a solution with a pH 7 classified as? | Neutral
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| What is a solution with a pH greater than 7 classified as? | Base
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| What will release free H+ ions when dissolved in water? | Acid
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| What will bind to free H+ ions when dissolved in water? | Base
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| Why is three-dimensional shape of a molecule important? | Because it is a determinant of its function in a cell
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| How is the shape of a molecule determined? | By the arrangement of electron orbitals that are shared by the atoms involved in the bond
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| What happens when a covalent bond forms | The orbitals in the valence shell rearrange
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| What is a linear molecule? | A molecule with two atoms (shape)
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| 1 kilogram = ? gram | 1 x 10^3 g
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| 1 milligram = ? gram | 1 x 10^-3 g
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| 1 microgram = ? gram | 1 x 10^-6 g
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| 1 nanogram = ? gram | 1 x 10^-9 g
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| 1 picogram = ? gram | 1 x 10^-12 g
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| 1 femtogram = ? gram | 1 x 10^-15 g
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| 1 attogrom = ? gram | 1 x 10^-18 g
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| What are organic compounds? | Compounds of life.
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| What do organic compound typically contain? | Carbon and Hydrogen (a few exceptions - carbon dioxide, sodium bicarbonate, carbon monoxide, and a few others which are considered inorganic molecules)
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| What are the 4 groups of organic compounds? | 1. Proteins
2. Carbohydrates
3. Lipids
4. Nucleic Acids
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| What are the four families of organic molecules? (monomeric form) | 1. simple sugar (monosaccharide)
2. amino acid
3. fatty acid
4. nucleotide
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| What are the four families of organic molecules? (polymeric form) | 1. disaccharide, oligosaccharide, polysaccharide
2. protein
3. lipid
4. nucleic acid
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| What is synthesis? | Removal of water
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| What is condensation? | Removal of water
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| What is elongation? | Removal of water
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| What is hydrolysis? | Addition of water
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| What functions do proteins perform? | Enzymes, carrier molecules, hormones, antibodies, components of the cell well & cell membrane
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| What makes up over 50% of a cells dry weight? | Protein
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| What is the basic unit molecule of protein? | Amino acids
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| What are bonds between amino acids? | Peptide bonds
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| What are the parts of an amino acid? | Central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, *R group (side chain)
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| What is the primary level of protein structure? | basic sequence of amino acids
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| What is the secondary level of protein structure? | how the primary structure folds back on itself
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| What is the tertiary level of protein structure? | how the secondary structure folds back on itself
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| What is the quaternary level of protein structure? | intimate interaction of two or more proteins bonding to each other
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| What two types of bonds play an important role in protein structure? | Hydrogen bonds and weak bonds
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| What determines if proteins will work properly? | If their primary structure is in the correct order of amino acids; if their tertiary and/or quaternary structures are intact.
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| What is the activity (function) of a protein based on? | Its structure (3D shape); anything that alters a proteins shape will alter its activity
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| How can you alter the shape of a protein (denature)? | heating to 100 degrees celcius, high salt concentrations, reducing agents, etc.
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| How is tertiary structure determined? | By a variety of interactions among R groups & between R groups & the polypeptide backbone
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| Which interactions between R groups help determine tertiary structure? | Hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der waals interactions
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| What are disulfide bridges? | Strong covalent bonds that form between sulfhydryl groups (SH) of cysteine monomers which stabilize the structure.
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| What is a simple protein? | Contain only amino acids
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| What is a conjugated protein? | Contains amino acids and another component:
-glycoprotein (addition of sugars)
-nucleoprotein (addition of nucleic acids)
-lipoprotein (addition of lipids)
-phosphoprotein (addition of phosphate groups)
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| What elements are in carbohydrates? | C, H, O
- ratio of H:O = 2:1
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| What are the functions of carbohydrates? | Fuel for cell activity, food reserve (starch), part of cell wall, part of DNA and RNA (deoxyribose and ribose)
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| What are some examples of monosaccharides? | glucose, fructose, galactose
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| How many carbons does trioses have? | 3
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| How many carbons does tetroses have? | 4
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| How many carbons does pentoses have? | 5
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| How many carbons does hexoses have? | 6
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| How many carbons does heptoses have? | 7
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| What happens to carbons or aldehyde or ketone group when in an aqueous solution? | React with -OH group, resulting in a ringed structure
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| What is an isomer? | Compound that exists in different forms having different arrangement of atoms but the same molecular weight
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| What is formed when carbons of the aldehyde or ketone group in the ring form react with -OH group of another monosaccharide? | A disaccharide is formed
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| What are polysaccharides? | A chain of monosaccharides
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| What are examples of polysaccharides? | 1. glycogen
2. starch
3. cellulose
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| What is glycogen? | The storage form of glucose for animales and some bacteria
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| What is starch? | The storage form of glucose in plants
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| What is cellulose? | The main structural component of plant and algae cell walls
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| What are lipids? | Fatty acids; fats and oils
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| What do lipids consist of (elements)? | C, H, O
- no 2:1 ratio like in carbohydrates
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| Are lipids generally polar or nonpolar? | nonpolar
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| What is the function of lipids | Food source, energy storage, structure of cell membrane and cell wall
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| What is amphipathic | has both hydrophillic and hydrophobic ends. (mostly hydrophobic)
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| What is an example of a fatty acid with double bond? | unsaturated hydrocarbons
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| What is triglyceride made up of? | 1 glycerol, 3 fatty acids
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| What are the two types of fatty acids | saturated & unsaturated
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| What happens when phosphate group replaces one of the fatty acids? | Polar head & nonpolar tail form
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| What is the main structural component of the cell membrane | Lipids
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| What are lipid bilayer membranes | Machines that are held together by weak intermolecular interactions between phosopholipids and other molecules including the proteins
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| What are the three components of nucleotides? | 1. nitrogenous base
2. phosphate group
3. five carbon sugar
(ribose or deoxyribose)
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| What does ATP stand for? | Adenosine triphosphate
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| Why are cells so small? | Upper limit on size imposed by surface area to volume ratio
Low limit imposed by a need for basic metabolic activities
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| What is entropy? | Randomness
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| In what domains are Prokaryotic cells found? | Bacteria and Archaea
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| In what domain are Eukaryotic cells found? | Eukarya
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| What do all cells have? | -Plasma membrane with the main structural feature of a phospholipid bilayer
-Cytosol
-DNA
-Ribosomes
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| Ribosomes are responsible for what? | Translation of mRNA to protein
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| What are the general features of prokaryotes? | -No membrane bound nucleus
-nucleoid
-cell wall -peptidoglycan
-1 to 10 micrometers in diameter
-divide by binary fission (asexual reproduction
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| What are the general features of eukaryotes in animals? | -Nucleus
-Endoplasmic reticulum (RER & SER)
-Golgi
-Lysosome
-Perioxisome
-Mitochondrion
-Cytoskeletal elements
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| What is the function of the nucleus? | houses DNA and location for DNA & RNA synthesis
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| What is binary fission? | Asexual reproduction
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| What is the function of the Endoplasmic Reticulum? | Protein synthesis and modification
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| What is the function of the Golgi? | Secretion
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| What is the function of the lysosome? | Digestive membrane-sac of chemicals
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| What is the function of the perioxisome? | Membrane-sac of protective chemicals (e.g., catalase)
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| What is the function of the mitochondrion? | Location for the majority of ATP synthesis
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| What is the function of the cytoskeletal elements? | Aids in cell structure, hydrostatic pressure, motility of vesicles and cell motility
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| What are the general features of eukarotes in plant cells? | -all animal organelles minus flagella & cilia
-chloroplast
-central vacuole
-cell wall
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| What is the function of the chloroplast? | Location for photosynthesis
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| What is the function of the central vacuole? | Location for food storage
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| What is the function of the cell wall? | Polysaccharide layer that give structural support to the cell
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| What is the extracellular matrix of an animal cell? | Necessary for attachment & tissue organization (e.g., organs) and cell to cell communication (e.g., immune system)
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| What are tight junctions? | Cell to cell junctions that leave no space between cells
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| What are desmosomes? | Junctions between cells that are very resistant to physical stress (prevents tearing)
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| What are gap junctions? | Regions between cells that allow communicative chemicals to be released and absorbed
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| What are plasmodesma? | opening between cells walls allowing the passage of chemicals
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| What did Singer-Nicholson create? | Fluid mosaic model (1972)
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| What are types of lipid bilayers? | Phospholipids, sterols, glycolipids
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| What are types of proteins? | Peripheral, Integral
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| Are unsaturated phospholipids fluid or viscous? | Fluid
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| Are saturated phospholipids fluid or viscous? | Viscous
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| Do membrane proteins move? | Yes
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| What are the functions of protein? | Transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, intercellular joining, cell-cell recognition, attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)
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| Where are membrane lipids and proteins synthesized? | ER
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| Through what do vesicles move? | The Golgi
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| What is a selectively permeable membrane? | Only certain chemicals are capable of entering OR leaving a cell due to the hydrophobic & size of the lipid bilayer (cell membrane)
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| What is diffusion? | Movement of a molecules/ion/particle from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
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| What is osmosis? | The diffusion of water (greater -> lesser)
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| What will a hypotonic solution do to an animal cell? | Make it lysed
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| What will a hypotonic solution do to a plant cell? | Normal
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| What will an isotonic solution do to an animal cell? | Normal
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| What will an isotonic solution do to a plant cell? | Make it flaccid
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| What will a hypertonic solution do to an animal cell? | Make it shriveled
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| What will a hypertonic solution do to a plant cell? | Make it plasmolyzed
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| What is facilitated diffusion? | Movement of solute from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration with the aid of a transport protein
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| What does facilitated diffusion require? | Channel or carrier
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| What is active transport? | Movement of solute from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration
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| What does active transport require? | Carrier and energy
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| What are types of passive transport? | Diffusion & facilitated diffusion
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| What is endocytosis? | Bringing into the cell
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| What is phagocytosis? | Engulfing fairly large particles; requires pseudopodia (membrane extensions that surround the engulfed particles)
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| WWhat is pseudopodia? | Membrane extensions that surround the engulfed particles
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| What is pinocytosis? | Indentation of membrane that surrounds and pinches off within the cell
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| What is receptor-mediated endocytosis? | Indentation of membrane due to a signally envent (substrate to ligand binding) that surrounds and pinches off within the cell
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| What is exocytosis? | Secreting into the extracellular fluid
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| What are types of endocytosis? | phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis
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| What is the function of intermediate filaments? | provides tensile strength
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| What type of cell is the cytoskeleton found in? | Eukaryotic
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| What is the function of actin filaments? | Provides strength, & in conjunction with myosin, movement.
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| What is the function of microtubules? | Movement of vesicles, maintenance of ER and Golgi organization, movement of chromosomes, formation of cilia and flagella
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| What are ribosomes made up of? | Proteins and ribosomal ribonucleic acids (rRNA)
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| What organelle does not have a lipid bilayer membrane? | Ribosome
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| What is needed to bind together to form a complete and functional ribosome? | 30 S and 50 S
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| What type of cell has 70 S? | Prokaryotes
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| What type of cell has 80 S? | Eukaryotes
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| 30 S and 50 S sandwich what? | mRNA
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| What type of ribosomes are found in the mitochondrion? | 70 S
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| What type of chromosomes are found in the mitochondrion? | Circular
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| What is the function of the Mitochondrion? | Location of cellular respiration
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| What organelles can replicate on their own? | Mitochondrion & chloroplast
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| What type of ribosome is found in the chloroplast? | 70 S
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| What type of chromosome is found in the chloroplast? | Circular
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| What is the function of the chloroplast? | Location of photosynthesis
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| What is the endosymbiotic hypothesis? | Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free living prokaryotes that were engulfed by Amoeba-like eukaryotic cells
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| Stanley Miller experiment tested what? | The Oparin-Haldane theory about the evolution of prebiotic chemicals and the origin of life on earth
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| What are meteors? | Bits of comic duct which coalesced into a solid "rock"
contain complex molecules like amino acids and sugars
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