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A&P2 Part 2 Exam 1

Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in each of the black spaces below before clicking on it to display the answer.
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Question
Answer
Central Nervous System   Brain and spinal cord  
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Peripheral nervous system (pns)   All nerves to spinal cord and other parts of the body  
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Autonomic nervous system ( ANS)   Control of involuntary body functions ( ex heartbeat digestion )  
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Three parts of a neuron   Celll body , dendrite , Axon  
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Cell body of neuron   main part  
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Dendrites   branching projections that conduct impulses to the cell body of the neuron  
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Axon   elongated projection that conducts impulses away from the cell body of the neuron  
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Melanin sheets   Made of protein phospholipid layer around axon  
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Three main types of connective tissue cells in SNS   Astrocytes, Microglia, Oligodendrocytes  
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Astrocytes   star shaped cells that anchor small blood vessels to neurons  
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Microglia   small cells that move in inflamed brain tissue carrying phagocytosis  
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Oligodendrocytes   form myelin sheaths on axons in the CNS (Schwann cells form myelin sheaths in PNS only)  
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Nerve   bundle of peripheral axons  
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Tract   bundle of central axons  
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Matter   brain or cord tissue composed primarily of myelinated axons (tracts)  
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Gray matter   brain or cord tissue composed primarily of cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers  
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Nerve coverings   fibrous connective tissue  
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Endoneurium   surrounds individual fibers within a nerve  
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Perineurium   surrounds a group (fascicle) of nerve fibers  
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Epineurium   surrounds the entire nerve  
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Nerve impulses (action potentials   are conducted from receptors to effectors over neuron pathways or reflex arcs; conduction by a reflex arc results in a reflex (that is, contraction by a muscle or secretion by a gland)  
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Two-neuron arcs   • The simplest reflex arcs, sensory neurons synapsing in the spinal cord with motor neurons; • Knee Jerk  
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Three-neuron arcs   • Sensory neurons synapse in the spinal cord Interneuron synapse with motor neurons and spinal cord • More complex response; involves an interneuron, in addition to sensory and motor  
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action potentials   o A self-propagating wave of electrical disturbance that travels along the surface of a neuron membrane  
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• Olfactory   from nose to brain  
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• Optic   from eye to brain  
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• Oculomotor   from brain to eye muscle  
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• Trochlear   from brain to external eye muscles  
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• Trigeminal   from skin and mucous of head and from teeth to the brain, also from brain to chewing muscles  
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• Abduces   from brain to the external eye muscles  
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• Facial   from taste buds of tongue to brain, from brain to face muscles  
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• Vestibulocochlear   from ear to the brain  
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• Glossopharyngeal –   From throat and taste buds of tongue to brain, also from brain to throat muscles and salivary glands  
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• Vagus   from throat, larynx, and organs in thoracic and abdominal cavities to the brain, also from brain to muscles of throat and to organs in thoracic abdominal cavities  
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• Accessory   from brain to certain shoulder and neck muscles  
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• Hypoglossal   from brain to muscles of tongue • Tongue movements  
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o Sciatica   • Is inflammation of the sciatic nerve that innervates the legs  
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o Neuralgia   • or muscle pain, often accompanies neuritis  
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o Trigeminal neuralgia   • Recurring episodes of stabbing pain along one or more branches of the trigeminal (fifth cranial) nerve in the head  
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o Bell palsy   • Paralysis of facial features resulting from damage to the facial (seventh cranial) nerve  
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o Herpes zoster, or shingles   • Viral infection caused by chickenpox virus that has invaded the dorsal root ganglion and remained dormant until an episode of shingles  
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o Autonomic nervous system   • Motor neurons that conduct impulses from the central nervous system to • Cardiac muscle, Smooth muscle, glandular epithelial tissue;  
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o Autonomic neurons—   • Preganglionic autonomic neurons conduct from spinal cord or brainstem to an autonomic ganglion  
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o Autonomic or visceral effectors   • Tissues to which autonomic neurons conduct impulses • Composed of two divisions—the sympathetic system and the parasympathetic system  
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o Autonomic conduction paths   • Consist of two-neuron relays (that is, preganglionic neurons from the CNS to autonomic ganglia, synapses, postganglionic neurons from ganglia to visceral effectors)  
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• Sympathetic Nervous System   o A chain of sympathetic ganglia is in front of and at each side of the spinal columno Serves as the emergency or stress system, controlling o Change enduced fight-or-flight response  
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• Parasympathetic Nervous System   o Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons have dendrites and cell bodies in the gray matter of the brainstem and the sacral segments of spinal cord everyday system  
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o Cholinergic fibers   eganglionic axons of parasympathetic and sympathetic systems and parasympathetic postganglionic axons release acetylcholine  
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o Adrenergic fibers—   axons of sympathetic postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine (noradrenaline)  
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• Autonomic Nervous System as a Whole   o Regulates the body’s automatic functions in ways that maintain or quickly restore homeostasis  
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• Which neurons transmit impulses from the brain and the spinal cord   o Motor  
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the most common primary diseases of the cns is a myelin disorder called   o Multiple sclerosis  
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• Nerve impulses are also called __ because each one is a difference in charge that usually triggers an action by the cell   o Action potential  
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• Identify the two morphine like neurotransmitters that function as inhibitors   o Endorphins and enkephalis  
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• Which of these would not be found in the brain stem   o Thalamus  
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• Which division of the nervous system function as emergency system   o Sympathetic  
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• General senses   ➢ temperature, touch, pressure, pain and proprioception  
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➢ Special senses   special organs of the head. ➢ sight, sound, taste, smell and balance  
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Properties of Stimulus   • Sensory neurons are activated • Neurons terminate in brain • Each receptor type is most sensitive to a particular modality of stimulus  
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Labeled Line coding   • 1:1 association of receptor with sensation . The brain associates a signal coming from a specific receptor with a specific modality.  
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Properties of Stimulus: Intensity   ➢ Coded by number of receptors activated and frequency of action potentials  
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Properties of Stimulus Duration   ➢ Coded by duration of action potentials ➢ Some receptors can adapt, or cease to respond  
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• Action potential   ➢ Rapid and uniform electrical signal conducted down a cell membrane  
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• Graded potential   ➢ Change in membrane potential whose magnitude is proportional to the stimulus and that decreases with distance as it spreads inside the cell membrane  
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Receptor potential   • Change in sensory receptor membrane potential (graded potential in a special senses receptor  
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• Meissner’s corpuscles   Fine touch  
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Pacinian corpuscles   • Vibration  
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Merkel receptors   Pressure/texture  
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Temperature Receptors   Free nerve endings  Terminate in subcutaneous layers  
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Nociceptors   pain  
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The somatic senses include   itch, touch ,proprioception ( body n space) pain  
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Proprioreceptors monitor   limb and muscle position  
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The minimum stimulus required to activate a sensory receptor is its _______.   threshold  
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Which type of sensory information is NOT routed through the thalamus on its way to the brain   olfactory  
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The intensity of a sensory stimulus is coded by _____.   the frequency of action potentials  
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Fibers that carry the most rapid sensory signals are   myelinated and large diameter  
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Ipsilateral means   on the same side  
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Ascending sensory pathways cross the midline   in the brainstem and in the spinal cord)  
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 Visual Pathway   ➢ Innermost layer of retina contains rods and cones➢ Nerve impulse leaves the eye through the optic nerve; the point of exit is free of receptors and is therefore called a blind spot brain can process visual info  
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 Diabetic retinopathy   damage to retina from hemorrhages and growth of abnormal vessels associated with diabetes mellitus  
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 Glaucoma   increased intraocular pressure decreases blood flow in retina and thus causes retinal degeneration  
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 Nyctalopia   night blindness) or the inability to see in dim light is caused by retinal degeneration or lack of vitamin A  Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) (most common)  
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 External ear    Contains ceruminous glands ( secrete air wax) ➢ Inflammation called otitis media  
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 Inner Ear   semicircular canals, and cochlea  
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 Cells acted on by hormones   target cells found within target organs  
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 Hormones removed from blood by    Degrading enzymes  Kidneys  Liver  
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 Half-life   time required for hormone's blood level to decrease by half  
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duration of Hormone Activity   ➢ Ranges from 10 seconds to several hours  
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Nonsteroid and Steroid Hormones   Nonsteroid hormones (first messengers) bind to receptors on the target cell membrane, triggering second messengers to affect the cell’s activities  
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Target Cell Activation   Target cell activation depends on three factors ➢ Blood levels of hormone ➢ Relative number of receptors on or in target cell ➢ Affinity of binding between receptor and hormone  
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➢ Up-regulation   target cells form more receptors in response to low hormone levels  
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➢ Down-regulation—   target cells lose receptors in response to high hormone levels  
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Regulation of Hormone Secretion   • Negative feedback—mechanisms that reverse the direction of a change in a physiological system o Maintain homeostatis , insulin • Positive feedback—(uncommon) mechanisms that amplify o Oxytosin child birth  
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Prostaglandins    Diffuse only a short distance to act on cells in that tissue  
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 Anterior pituitary gland   ➢ Adeno = gland  
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 Posterior pituitary gland   neurohypophysis) ➢ Neuro = nervous  
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 TSH—• Thyroid-stimulating hormone   stimulates growth of the thyroid gland; also stimulates thyroid hormone release  
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 ACTH• Adrenocorticotropic hormone   stimulates growth of the adrenal cortex and glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) release  
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 FSH• Follicle-stimulating hormone   initiates growth of ovarian follicles each month in the ovary and stimulates one or more follicles to develop to the stage of maturity and ovulation  
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 LH• Luteinizing hormone    Acts with FSH to stimulate estrogen secretion and follicle growth to maturity  Causes ovulation  Causes luteinization of the ruptured follicle  
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 GH- growth hormone    Stimulates growth by accelerating protein anabolism  Accelerates fat catabolism and slows glucose catabolism  
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 Prolactin (PRL) or lactogenic hormone    Stimulates breast development during pregnancy  Secretion of milk after the delivery of the baby  
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ADH (Vasopressin)    Inhibits or prevents urine formation  Regulates water balance  
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 Oxytocin   ➢ Stimulates the pregnant uterus to contract ➢ May initiate labor  
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Thyroid Gland   t3 10 times more active  
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Function of Hormones   Insulin decreases the blood glucose by accelerating the movement of glucose  
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hypoglycemia   excessive insulin secretion causes hypoglycemia  
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➢ Ovaries produce   estrogens and progesterone  
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Placenta secretes   estrogens, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG  
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➢ Adrenogenital syndrome   hyper secretion  
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Thymus   ➢ Plays an important role in the development and function of the body’s immune system  
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Placenta   Produces chorionic gonadotropins, estrogens, and progesterone ➢ Maintain the corpus luteum during pregnancy  
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Pineal Gland   ➢ Glandular tissue predominates in children and young adults ➢ Becomes fibrous and calcified with age  Secretes melatonin  
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• Normal volumes of blood   o Plasma-2.6 l o Formed elements 2.4 l o Whole blood- 4 to 6 L average or 7%  
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RBC Abnormalities  Named according to size:   ➢ Normocytes- normal blood cell size ➢ Microcytic ➢ Macrocytixc  
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 Named according to hemoglobin content of cell:   ➢ Normochromic – normoal content of heboglobin ➢ Hypochromic ➢ Hyperchromic  
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Polycythemia   Cause is generally cancerous transformation of red bone marrow Dramatic increase in RBC numbers  
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Anemia   Caused by low numbers or abnormal RBCs or by low levels or defective types of hemoglobin  
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Leukocyte Types and Functions   ➢ Neutrophils ➢ Eosinophils ➢ Basophils  
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 Agranulocytes   monocytes in peripheral blood (macrophages in tissues);  
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lymphocytes—B lymphocytes   ➢ Monocytes ➢ Lumphocytes  
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White Blood Cell Disorders   ➢ Lymphoid neoplasms ➢ Myeloid neoplasms  
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Multiple Myeloma    Cancer of B lymphocytes called plasma cells  
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fibrous pericardium    There to protect the heart and anchor it in the body  Layers separated by fluid filled caviy t  
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 Heart chambers   ➢ Two upper chambers are called atria (receiving chambers)—right and left atria ➢ Two lower chambers called ventricles (discharging chambers discharge blood)—right and left ventricles  
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myocardium    Wall of each heart chamber is composed of cardiac muscle tissue called  
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 Endocardium   smooth lining of heart chambers  
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➢ Fossa ovalis   remnant of foramen ovale of fetal heart  
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 Interventricular septum   separates ventricles  
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The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits    Heart is transport system; two side-by-side pumps ➢ Right side receives oxygen-poor blood from tissues (pulmonary circuit) ➢ Left side receives oxygenated blood from lungs systemic )  
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The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits   ➢ Right atrium ➢ Left atrium  
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Heart Valves   • Valves keep blood flowing through the heart; prevent backflow • Atrioventricular (AV) valves  
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 Pulmonary semilunar    Beginning of the pulmonary artery  
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 Aortic semilunar    Beginning of the aorta  
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 Systemic circuit   ➢ Left atrium à mitral valve à left ventricle ➢ Left ventricle à aortic semilunar valve à aorta ➢ Aorta à systemic circulation  
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• SA (sinoatrial) node   pace maker o Sets pace for the rhythm of the heart  
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• AV (atrioventricular) node   located in the right atrium interatrial septum  
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• AV bundle   septum of ventricle  
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• Purkinje fibers   in the wall of ventricle  
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eeg trace   depolorization caused by p wave ,impulse delayed to av node, ventricular depolorization qrs atrial deplorization occurs ,ventricular depolorization complete, ventricular repolorization begings t wave, ventricular repolorization complete  
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right side of the heart   recieves oxygen poor blood from tissue  
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left side receives   oxygenated blood from the lungs  
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vericosa veins   enlarged veins in which blood pools  
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thrombophlebitis   vein inflammmation accompanied by clot formation  
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bluish tint in fetal blood circulation   cyanosis  
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how many pulse points are there   9  
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vital signs   temperature , pressure , respiratory rate , pulse  
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pulse   pressure caused by expansion of recoil arteries  
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radial pulse   pulse taken at wrist  
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pressure points   where arteries are close to body surface  
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systolic pressure   less than 120  
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diastolic pressure   less than 80  
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hypertension   occurs when blood pressure exceeds 140/90  
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circulatory stock   failure of the circulatory system to deliver oxygen to the tissues adequately resulting in cell impairment  
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cardiogenic stock   caused by heart failure  
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hypovolemic shock   drop in blood volume that causes blood pressure and blood flow to drop ( hemorrhage)  
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primary or essential hypertension   90% hypertensive conditions no underlying caise  
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secondary hypertension   due to identifiable disorders including obstructed renal arteries, kidney disease , and endocrine disorders ( hypothyroidism and cushings)  
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hypotension   low blood pressure 90/60  
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homeostatic imbalance hypotension   orthoatatic hypotension, chronic hypotension , acute hypotension  
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