Infants & Children 1
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| vacuum extractor | a plastic cup attached to a suction tube, used to help deliver a baby
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| chromosomes | rodlike structures in the cell nucleus that store and transmit genetic information
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| DNA | long, double stranded molecules that make up chromosomes
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| gene | a segment of a DNA molecule that contains hereditaty instructions
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| mitosis | the process of cell duplication, in which each new cell receives an exact copy of the original chromosomes
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| gametes | human sperm and ova, which contains half as many chromosomes as regular body cells
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| meiosis | the process of cell division through which gametes are formed and in which the number of chromosomes in each cell is halved
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| zygote | the newly fertilized cell formed by the union of sperm and ovum at conception
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| crossing over | during meiosis, the exchanged of genes between chromosomes next to eahc other
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| XY | male
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| XX | female
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| autosomes | the 22 matching chromosome pairs in each human cell
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| sex chromosomes | the 23rd pair of chromosomes, which determines the sex of the child
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| fraternal, or dizygotic twins | twins resulting from the release and fertilization of two ova. They are genetically no more alike than ordinary siblings
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| identical, or monozygotic twins | twins that result when zygote, during the early stages of cell duplication, divides in two. They have the same genetic makeup
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| allele | each of 2 forms of a gene located at the same place on the autosomes
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| homozygous | having two identical alleles at the same place on a pair of chromosomes
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| heterozygous | having 2 different alleles at the same place on a pair of chromosomes
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| dominant-recessive inheritance | a pattern of inheritance in which, under heterozygous conditions, the influence of only one allele is apparent
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| carrier | a heterozygous individual who can pass a recessive trait to his or her children
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| modifier genes | genes that can enhance or dilute the effects of other genes
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| incomplete dominance | a pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a combined trait or one that is intermediate between the two
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| X-linked inheritance | a pattern of inheritance in which the recessive gene is carried on the X chromosome, so that males are more likely to be affected
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| Duchenne muscular dystrophy, hemophilia, diabetes insipidus | X-linked diseases
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| genetic imprinting | a pattern of inheritance in which alleles are imprinted, or chemically marked, in such a way that one pair member is activated, regardless of its makeup
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| mutation | a sudden but permanent change in a segment od DNA
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| polygenic inheritance | a pattern of inheritance in which many genes affect the characteristic in question
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| genetic counseling | a communication process designed to help couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals
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| prenatal diagnosis methods | medical procedures that permit detection of developmental problems before birth
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| SES | a measure of a family's social position and economic well-being that combines three related variables: years of education, and the prestige of and skill required by one's job, and income.
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| amniocentesis | most widely used technique-- sticks a hollow needle into uterus to obtain fluids. Cells are examined for genetic defects
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| chorionic villus sampling | Needle inserted and obtains one or more chorionic villi.. then examines for genetic defects
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| fetoscopy | a samll tube with a light source at one end is inserted into the uterus to inspect for physical defects or to get a blood sample
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| ultrasound | high frequency waves are beamed are beamed at the uterus to display a picture of the fetus
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| subculture | a group of people with beliefs and customs that differ from those of the larger culture
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| extended-family household | a household in which parent and child live with one or more adult relatives
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| collectivist societies | societies in which people define themselves as part of a group and stress group over individual goals
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| individualistic societies | societies in which people think of themselves as separate entities and are largely concerned with their own personal needs
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| public policies | laws and government programs designed to improve current conditions
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| behavioral genetics | a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to the diversity in human traits and abilities
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| heritability estimate | a statistic that measures the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors
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| kinship studies | studies comparing the characteristics of family members to determine the importance of heredity in complex human characteristics
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| concordance rate | the percentage of instances in which both members of a twin pair show a trait when it is present in one pair member, used to study the contribution and heredity to emotional and behavior disorders
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| Concordance rate of 100 | heredity the only influence
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| Concordance of 0 | if one twin has it, the other one never does
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| range of reaction | each eprson's unique genetically determined response to a range of environmental conditions
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| canalization | the tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes
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| genetic-environmental correlation | the idea that heredity influrences the environments to which individuals are exposed
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| niche-picking | a type of genetic-environmental correlation in which individuals actively choose environments that complement their heredity
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| passive correlation | chid has no control over it
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| active correlation (evocative) | children have freedom to make more choices
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| epigenesis | development of the individual resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment
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| phenotype | the individual's physical and behavioral characteristics, which are determined by both genetic and environmental factors
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| genotype | an individual's genetic makeup
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| meiosis | most chromosomal abnormalities are due to errors during this..
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| down syndrome | most common chromosomal abnormality
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| child development | a field of study devoted to understanding all aspects of human constancy and change from conception through adolescence
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| developmental science | an interdisciplinary field devoted to the study of all changes we experience throughout the lifespan
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| prenatal period | conception to birth
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| infancy and toddlerhood | from birth to 2 years
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| early childhood | from 2 to 6 years
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| middle childhood | from 6 to 11 years
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| adolescence | from 11 to 18 years
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| emerging adulthood | from 18 to 25 years
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| theory | an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior
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| continuous development | a view that regards development as a cumulative process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with
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| discontinuous development | a view of development as a process in which new ways of understanding and responging to the world emerge at specific times
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| stage | a qualitative change in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterizes a specific period of development
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| contexts | unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in markedly different paths of change
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| nature-nurture controversy | debate among theorists about whether genetic or environmental factors are more important in development
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| resilience | the ability to adapy effectively in the face of threats to development
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| tabula rasa | Locke's view of the child as a "blank slate" whose character is shaped entirely by experience
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| noble savage | Rousseau's view of the child as naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth
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| maturation | a genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth
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| normative approach | an approach in which age-related averages are computed to represent typical development
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| psychoanalytic perspective | Freud's view of personality development, in which children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. The way these conflicts are solved determines psychological adjustment
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| psychosexual theory | Freud's theory, which emphasizes that how parentsmanage children's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years of life is crucial for healthy personality development
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| psychosocial theory | Erikson's theory, which emphasizes that at each Freudian stage, individuals not only develop a unique personality but also aquire attitudes and skills that help them become active, contributing members of their society
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| psychosocial stages | oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
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| behaviorism | an approach that regards directly observable events- stimuli and responses- as the appropriate focus of study and that views the development of behavior as taking place through classical and operant conditioning
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| social learning theory | an approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in the development of behavior
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| behavior modification | procedures that combine conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses
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| cognitive-developmental theory | an approach introduced by Piaget that views children as actively constructing knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world and that regards cognitive development as taking place in stages
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| information processing | an approach that views the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows and that regards cognitive development as a continuous process
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| sensorimotor | birth to 2 years- think by acting on the world
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| preoperational | 2 to 7 years- development of language and make believe
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| concrete operational | 7 to 11 years- reasoning becomes logical, amounts are the same
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| formal operational | 11 years on- abstract, systematic thinking
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| developmental cognitive neuroscience | an area of investigation that brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing child's cognitive processing and behavior patterns
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| ethology | an approach concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history
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| sensitive period | a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental inluences
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| evolutionary developmental psychology | an approach that seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age
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| sociocultural theory | Vygotsky's theory, in which children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of their society
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| ecological systems theory | Brofenbrenner's approach, which views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values and programs
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| microsystem | in ecological systems theory, the innermost level of the environment, consisting of activies and interaction patterns in the child's immediate surroundings
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| mesosystem | in ecological systems theory, the relationship between two things from the child's immediate settings
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| exosystem | in ecological systems theory, social settings that do not contain children but that affect children's experiences in immediate settings. Examples are parents' workplace, health and welfare services, parents' social networks
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| macrosystem | in ecological systems theory, cultural values, laws, customs, and resources that influence experiences and interactions at inner levels of the environment
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| chronosystem | in ecological systems theory, temporal changes in children's environments, which produce new conditions that affect development. These changes can be imposed externally or arise from the child within
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| dynamic systems theory | a view that regards the child's mind, body, and physical and social worlds as a dynamic, integrated system. A change leads the child to reorganize his behavior so the components of the system work together again but in a more complex and efficient way
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| naturalistic observation | a method in which the researcher goes into the natural environment to observe the behavior of interest
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| structured observations | a method in which the investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response
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| clinical interview | an interview method in which the researcher uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view
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| structured interview | an interview method in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way
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| clinical, or caste study, method | a method in which the researcher attempts to understand an individual child by combining interview data, observations, and sometimes test scores
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| ethnography | a method in which the researcher attempts to understand the unique value and social processes of a culture or a distince social group through a participant observation- living with its members and taking notes
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| correlational design | a research design in which the researcher gathers information on individuals without altering participants' experiences and then examines relationships between variables. Does not permit inferences about cause and effect
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| correlation coefficient | a number ranging from +1.00 to -1.00, that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
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| experimental design | a research design in which the investigator randomly assigns participants to treatment conditions. Permits inferences about cause and effect
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| independent variable | the variable the research expects to cause changes in another variable in an experiment- Ex: more training
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| dependent variable | the variable the investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable in an experiment- Ex: running time
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| random assignment | an unbiased procedure for assigning participants to treatment groups, which increases the chances that participants' characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment conditions in an experiment
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| longitudinal design | a research design in which participants are studied repeatedly at different ages
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| cohort effects | the effects of cultural-historical change on the accuracy of longitudinal and corss-sectional findings. Children born in a particular time period are influenced by a particular set of cultural and historical conditions
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| corss-sectional design | a research design in which groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time
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| sequential design | a research design in which several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences) are conducted at varying times
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| microgenetic design | a research design in which investigators present children with a novel task and follow their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions
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| protection from harm, informed consent, privacy, knowledge of results, beneficial treatments | research rights
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