| Question |
Answer |
| Pr(A) lies between for all A |
0 and 1 |
| The sum of probabilitys of all mutually exclusive events is |
1 |
| AND rule |
Pr(A and B)= Pr(A)x Pr(B) |
| OR Rule |
Pr(A or B)= Pr(A)+ Pr(B) |
| Joint Probability |
Pr(A,B)= Pr(A|B)x Pr(B) |
| Conditional Probability |
Pr(A|B) |
| Disease Relative Risk(RR) |
the increase in the conditional probability for a sibling vs. a random individual |
| Bayes Theorem |
Pr(B|A)= Pr(A|B) x Pr(B)/ Pr(A) |
| Waiting |
time/# of draws until event |
| Geometric Distribution |
Pr(first success in trial n+1)=(1-p)^n x p |
| Exponential Distribution |
Prob(T
|
| Memoryless feature |
the constant risk per unit of time means knowing how long it has been since the last failure provides no information on when the next will occur |
| Binomial Distribution |
n trials, each with probability p of successexpected # of successes n x pProb(k successes)=[n!/{(n-k)!k!}]p^k (1-p)^(n-k) |
| Poisson Distribution |
Prob( exactly k successes)=m^k exp(-m)/k!Prob(no successes)= exp(-m) |
| Normal/ Gaussian Distribution |
classic bell curve |
| Independent assortment |
the genes are on different chromosomes |
| Linkage |
the genes are on same chromosomes |
| pleiotropy |
an alleles influence on two(or more) traits |
| temperature sensitivity allele |
temperature inactivated, environment influences the phenotype of an allele, ex: himalayan rabbit |
| Penetrance |
how often a gene expresses a trait |
| incomplete penetrance |
genotype does not always express the phenotype of interest |
| expressivity |
variance in levels of expression when a trait appears |
| phenocopies |
the appearance of a trait without being caused by the genotype of interest |
| Dominance |
phenotype of the heteozygote is the same as the phenotype of the homozygote |
| Incomplete Dominance |
phenotype of the heterozygote is intermediate between the phenotypes of the two homozygotes |
| Codominance |
phenotype fo the heterozygote is includes the phenotype of both homozygotes |
| Self-incompatibility alleles |
involves multiple alleles that are lethal in certain combos, avoids "selfing" or reproducing with itself |
| Epistasis |
the interaction between alleles at different genes |
| duplicate dominant epistasis |
both nyst be homozygous recessive for the trait to appear |
| Mitosis |
identical replication of cells |
| meiosis |
creating haploid gametes from a diploid cell, two stages: reductional division and mitotic division, result is four gametes |
| bacteria |
single circular chromosome, single origin of replication |
| eukaryotes |
typically have multiple linear chromosomes |
| metacentric |
centromere is central |
| acrocentric |
centromere is up at the top, small top, big bottom |
| telocentric |
cetromere is at the bottom, no top, small bottom |
| submetacentric |
centromere is between where meta and acros is--> below meta |
| Static (G0) cells |
stable nondividing phase |
| Interphase |
gaps 1 and 2, and synthesis phases; nuclear membrane is present and chromosomes are relaxed |
| Mitoticphase(M phase) |
prophase,metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis |
| Prophase |
chromosomes condense each chromosome posses two chromatids, mitotic spindle forms |
| Prometaphase |
nuclear membrane disintegrates, spindle microtubules attatch to chromatids |
| Metaphase |
chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate |
| Anaphase |
sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles |
| Telophase |
chromosomes arrive at spingle poles. nuclear membrane re-forms and teh chromosomes relax |
| centrosome |
the anchor in the cell |
| kinetochore |
anchor for each chromosome |
| microtubules |
the pulleys/rope to more chromosomes towards the centrosomes, sitting at the spindle pole position |
| Prophase 1 |
five stages: leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesischromosome pairing occurs in leptotene and zygotenesynaptonemal complex(holding homologous chromosomes together) occurs in pachytenecrossing over= diplotene |
| Middle Prophase 1 |
chromosomes begin to condense and the spindle forms |
| Late Prophase 1 |
homologous chromosomes pair, chiasmata or crossing over takes place and the nuclear membrane breaks down |
| Metaphase 1 |
homologous pairs of chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate |
| Anaphase 1 |
homologous chromosomes separate and move toward opposite poles |
| Telophase 1 |
chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles and cytoplasm divides |
| Prophase II |
chromsomes recondense |
| metaphase II |
individual chromosomes line up on the equatorial plate |
| Anaphase II |
sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles |
| Telophase II |
chromosomes arrive at the poles and cytoplasm divides |
| Interkinesis |
in some types of cells the spindle breaks down, chromosomes relax and nuclear envelopes reforms, but no DNA synthesis occurs |
| Cytokinesis(meiosis) |
2, 1 before interkinesis and 1 at the end |
| key difference in mitosis and meiosis |
follow the centromeres |
| Dioecious |
separate sexesmost(but not all)animals, some plants |
| monoecious |
hermaphrodites, many plants, some animals |
| chromosome based systems |
differentiated sex chromosomes(morphologically different)--> animals mostlyindifferentiated sex chromosomes--> plants |
| single gene based systems |
yeast mating type, common for unicelluar species |
| Homogametic sex |
sex containing two like sex chromosomes |
| heterogametic sex |
two unlike sex chromosomes |
| SRY |
sex determining region(on the Y) |
| androgen insensitivity syndrome |
have internal testes, but phenotypically female(sterile), testosterone is produced but cells lack testosterone receptor, hence stay female |
| x-autosome counting systems |
drosphilia determine sex NOT by the presence of the Y but by the ratio of the number of X's to number of autsomal sets--> 1/2= male, 1= female |
| Haplodiploidy |
males haploid, females diploidsex: bees, females can make males by not fertilizing the egg |
| Dosage-compensation |
x-inactivation in mammalsin fruit flies, bia differential x expression between the sexes, overexpress X in male(hyperactivation) |
| x chromosome inactivation |
in each female cell, all but one X are randomly inactivated, creating a mosaic in a femalealso called Barr Body |
| reciprocal crosses in sex-linked traits |
different ration of offspring between male A x female B vs. female A x male B |
| hemizygous |
X^A males |
| Imprinting |
genetic phenomena that can mimic se-linkage(difference in reciprocal crosses |
| Rods |
one billion per retinacontain Rhodopsin(bleaches when exposed to light which converts light into shades of gray)responsible for night vision, very sensitive to low levels of light |
| COnes |
seven million per retinathree typeseach type contains a single opsin pigment(red blue, or green)absorbs light as slightly different wave lengths |
| blue opsin |
autosomal |
| red and green opsin |
sex-linked, tighly linked to x chromosome |
| red and green colorblindness |
more common in males and more common over blue colorblindness |
| maternal cytoplasm |
contributes to the embyro, maternally encoded mRNAs, proteins, over factors in developing eggs |
| mtDNA and cpDNA |
almost always uniparentially inherited(typically the female)transmitting the gemones to their offspring |
| extranuclear genes |
usualy uniparentaluse replicative segregation |
| human mtDNA genome |
~17,000 base pairscomplete set of RNAssmall and large riboRNAs(bacterial)codes for about a dozen proteins |
| mtDNA genome |
all sequenced have about the same number of genes, vary greatly in size, uses slightly different genetic code |
| chloroplast genome |
~120-220 kilo~140 genes4 rRNAs30 tRNAs90 protein coding genes, 20 for photosynthesis of these |
BIOL3326 Forms
