biology

Description:	bio study for DAT
Category:	DAT
Created by:	gennhaver on 2009-07-10

Question	Answer
List the 4 types of non-specific defenses in the human body.	1. anatomic: skin and tears 2. physiologic: temp. and pH 3. phagocytic: macrophages and neutrophils 4. inflammatory: vasodilation
list for 4 functions of gibberellins	1. stimulate rapid stem elongation 2. inhibit formation of new roots 3. stimulate the production of new phloem cells by cambium 4. terminate dormancy of seeds and buds
What inhibits growth of lateral buds?	auxins
What does ethylene do (plants)?	stimulates fruit ripening
What is the chorion? 1) external development 2) internal development	1. lines the inside of the shell and permits gas exchange through the egg shells 2. a membrane that completely surrounds the amnion, placenta formation begins here
What is the allantois? external development	sac like, involved in respiration and excretion contains many blood vessels to transport O2, CO2, water, salt, and nitrogenous wastes
What is the allantois? internal development	develops as outpocket of gut blood vessels enlarge and become umbilical vessels which connect the fetus to the placenta
What is the Amnion? (internal and external)	Thin tough membrane that contains the amniotic fluid. provides aqueous environment which protects developing embryo from shock
Yolk sac? 1. external 2. internal	1.encloses the yolk, blood vessels in yolk sac transfer food to embryo. 2. site of early deveopment of blood vessels, becomes associated w/umbilical vessels
List the layers surrounding the embryo from innermost to outermost. (4 layers) internal developement	1. allantois/yolk sac (umbilical vessels) 2. amnion 3. chorion 4. uterine lining
List the layers surrounding the embryo from innermost to outermost. (4 layers) external developement	1. amnion 2. allantois/yolk sac 3. chorion 4. shell
1. What is the male organ of a flower? 2. What are its components and what do they do (2 things)	1. stamen 2. Stalk like "filament" and terminal sac called the "anther" The anther produces haploid spores which develope into pollen grains.
1. What is the female organ and 2. What are its 3 parts?	1. Pistil 2. "Stigma" - sticky top part that catches pollen "Style" tube-like structure, connects stigma "Ovary" base of pistil, contains ovule (each has monoploid egg nucleus)
What is the epicotyl?	seed formation: precursor of the upper stem and leaves
What is the cotyledons?	seed formation: seed leaves
what is the hypocotyl?	develops into the lower stem and root
What is the endosperm?	Grows and feeds the embryo in dicots the cotyledon absorbs the endosperm
What does the seed coat develop from?	develops from the outer covering of the ovule embryo + seed coat = seed
1. What is the male gametophyte? (plants) 2. What is it made of?	1. The pollen grain. 2. Contains a tube nucleus and a generative nucleus (made by mitosis of a microspore.
How are male gametes made? (plants)	pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma and the generative nucleus divides to form sperm nuclei which are the gametes
1. What does the female gametophyte develop from and where? (plants) 2. What is it?	1. Develops in the ovule from one of 4 spores. 2. it's the embryo sac and contains nuclei including the two polar (endosperm) nuclei and an egg nucleus
1. How does fertilization occur? (plants) 2. What do the 2 sperm nuclei do?	1. when the sperm nuclei enter the embryo sac 2. one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to form the diploid zygote. The other fuses with the 2 polar bodies to form the endosperm (triploid)
In what order does air enter the body?	nose, pharynx (throat), larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
What body parts are derived from the ectoderm?	integument (epidermis, hair, nails, epithelium of nose, mouth, and anal canal), lens of the eye, retina, nervous system
1. How many ATP are produced during glycolysis? 2. What other cofacter is produced and how many?	1. 4 ATP are produced but 2 are used up, so only a net of 2 ATP are produced 2. 2 NADH are produced
How many ATP are made via substrate level phosphorpylation?	4
How much ATP is produced per glucose molecule in anaerobic conditions and what is the process call?	2 ATP via fermentation
In what organisms does alcohol fermentation occur and what is pyruvate converted into?	yeast and bacteria, pyruvate -> ethanol
Why does fermentation occur?	absence of oxygen, regenerates NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue
What does inhaled 02 do in respiration?	it is the final O acceptor and generates water
What is exhaled CO2 from?	from ingested glucose generated from the decarboxylation of pyruvate
What is derived from the mesoderm?	musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, excretory system, conenctive tissue throughout body, portions of digestive and respiratory organs
What is derived from the endoderm?	epithelial linings of digestive system and respiratory tract (lungs), parts of the liver, pancreas, thyroid, and bladder lining
What is the heart derived from?	Mesoderm
What is the thyroid derived from?	endoderm
What is the bladder lining derived from?	endoderm
What is the liver derived from?	endoderm
what are the lungs derived from?	endoderm
what is the nervous system derived from?	ectoderm
what is the circulatory system derived from?	mesoderm
What are direct hormones?	directly stimulate target organ
What are tropic hormones?	stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones
Growth hormones	Anterior pituitary, direct, peptide hormone, promotes bone an dmuscle growth children: dwarfism, gigantism adults: acromegaly
prolactin	Anterior pituitary, direct, peptide hormone, stimulates milk production and secretion in female mammary glands
endorphines	Anterior pituitary, direct, peptide hormone, inhibit perception of pain
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)	Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, strimulates adrenal cortex to synthesize and release glucocorticoids
corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF)	regulates ACTH
TSH	Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, stimulates thyroid
LH	Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone females: stimulates ovulation and formation of corpus luteum males: stimulates interstitial cells of testes to synthesize testosterone
FSH	Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, females: maturation of ovarian follicles which begin secreting estrogen males: maturation of seminiferous tubules and sperm production
MSH	Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, skin pigment
oxytocin	posterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, secreted during childbirth, increases strength and frequency of uterine muscle contractions
ADH	posterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, AKA vasopressin, AKA antidiuretic hormone, increases permeability of nephron's COLLECTING DUCT when blood osmolarity increases or when blood volume decreases
which part of the brain has osmoreceptors?	hypothalamus
what is cretinism?	hypothyroidism in infants
calcitonin	thyroid
glucagon	pancreas, alpha cells
insulin	pancreas, beta cells
diabetes mellitus	insensitivity to insulin, characterized by hyperglycemia
renin	kidneys, converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I which is converted to angiotensin II which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secret ALDOSTERONE
melatonin	pineal gland
gastrin	gastrointestinal hormone, stimulates glands to release HCL in response to food in stomach
secretin	small intestine, when acidic food material enters stomach, stimulates secretion of bicarbonate by pancrease
cholecystokinin	small intestine, response to presence of fats, causes contraction of gall bladder and release of bile into small intestine
vitamin d	steroid hormone, works with kidneys and adolsterone
(cortisol, cortisone)	adrenal cortex, glucocorticoids, steroid hormone, raise blood glucose levels by promoting protein breakdown and GLUCONEOGENSIS
(aldosterone)	adrenal cortex, mineral corticoids, steroid hormone, reuptake of sodium, excretion of K, results in rise in blood volume and pressure
What is hypertension and what can cause it?	high blood pressure, overproduction of aldosterone
Androgens	adrenal cortex, steroid hormone, male sex hormones
epinephrine, norepinephrine	adrenal medulla, CATECHOLAMINES (amino acid derived compound), increases conversion of glycogen to glucose, increase basal metabolic rate, dilate eyes, FIGHT OR FLIGHT, sympathetic nervous system
how does an action potential begin?	generated when cell becomes sufficiently depolarized (less negative), voltage gated NA channels open IN down gradient response to depolarization NA channels close, K channels open and allow K to rush OUT down gradient
What is repolarization?	when K rushes into the cell, returning the cell to more negative potential
What is hyperpolarization?	When the neuron shoots past its resting potential and becomes even more negative inside than normal
refractory period	when its difficult or impossible to initiate anotehr action potential due to hyperpolarization
A larger diameter of the axon would lead to...	faster impulse travel
The more intense a stimulus...	the more frequent the action potentials
What are effector cells?	cells that neurons communicate with other than other neurons like MUSCLES or GLANDS
What do neurotransmitters do?	depolarize post synaptic cell and cause consequent firing of an action potential
afferent neuron	neurons that carry sensory info about the external or internal environment to the brain or spinal cord
efference neurons	carry motor commands from brain or spinal cord to body
interneuron	participate in local circuits, link sensory and motor neuron in brain and spinal cord, bodies and nerve terminals in same location
What are nerves?	bundles of axons covered in connective tissue
plexus	network of nerve fibers
ganglia	clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the periphery
nuclei (nerves)	clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the central nervous system
cerebral cortex	forebrain, telecephalon, processes and integrates sensory input and motor responses, important for memory and creative thought
olfactory bulb	forebrain,telencephalon, center for reception and integration of olfactory input
thalamus	forebrain,diencephalon, relay and integration center for the spinal cord and cerebral cortex
hypothalamus	forebrain,diencephalon, controls visceral functions: hunger, thirst, sex drive, water balance, blood pressure, temp regulation; also important role in endocrine system
midbrain	relay center for visual and auditory impulses, also important role in motor control
cerebellum	hindbrain, modulate motor impulses impulses initiated by cerebral cortex, important in MAINTENANCE OF BALANCE, HAND EYE COORDINATION, and TIMING OF RAPID MOVEMENTS
pons	hindbrain, relay center allows cortex to communicate with cerebellum
medulla	hindbrain, controls breathing, heart rate, gastrointestinal activity
brainstem	midbrain, pons, and medulla
reflexes	integration of simple motor responses by the spine, sensory fibers synapse difrectly on ventral horn motor fibers can sometimes include interneurons
dorsal horn	where sensory info enters the spinal cord
ventral horn	where motor info exits spinal cord
somatic nervous system	peripheral nervous system, innevates skeletal muscles and responsible for voluntary movement
autonomic nervous system	peripheral nervous system, involuntary, innervates CARDIAC and SMOOTH muscle
smooth muscle	found in blood vessels, digestive tract, bladder, and bronchi
sympathetic	peripheral nervous system, autonomic, fight or flight, uses norepinephrine as primary neurotransmitter
parasympathetic	peripheral nervous system, autonomic, rest and digest, uses acetylcholine as primary neurotransmitter
sclera	opaque layer of eye, thick
choroid	beneath sclera of eye, helps supply retina with blood
retina	innermost layer of eye, contains photo receptors that sense light
cornea	transparent at front of eye, bends and focuses light rays
pupil	opening in eye that allows light through, controlled by IRIS
lens	suspended behind pupil, shape and focal length controlled by CILLIARY MUSCLES, focus image onto retina
photoreceptor cells synapse onto-> 1) synapse onto-> 2)	1) bipolar cells 2) ganglion cells
optic nerve	bundle of axons of ganglion cells
vitreous humor	jelly like material in eye, helps maintain shape and optical properties
aqueous humor	formed by the eye and exits through ducts to join venous blood
fovea	densely packed cones, important for acuity vision
cataracts	lens becomes opaque
glaucoma	increased pressure in eye due to blocking of outflow of aqueus humor
astigmatism	iregularly shaped eye
hyperopia	farsightedness, image focused BEHIND retina
progression of sound through ear	outer ear , auditory canal, tympanic membrane, ossicles, oval window, inner ear, cochlea, vestibular apparatus, hair cells on basilar membrane
tympanic membrain	eardrum
ossicles	(malleus, incus, stapes) amplify stimulus and transmits through oval window
cochlea	inner eaer
vestibular membrain	inner ear, maintain equilibrium
basilar membrane	inner ear, transduce pressure into action potentials which travel via auditory nerve to brain
where does photosynthesis take place?	chloroplast, has chlorophyl pigment
stroma	fluid matrix of chloroplast
grana	stacks of thlyakoid sacs
What do light reactions do?	convert solar energy into chemical energy
what do dark reactions do?	incorporate CO2 into organic molecules (CARBON FIXATION), also called reduction synthesis because carbs are produced by reducing CO2
cyclic e flow	P700, produce ATP, uses ferrodoxin
noncyclic e flow	P700->P680, , P700 becomes powerful oxidizing agent, water split make O2 net result: ATP, NADPH, O2
photoionization	escape of high energy electrons from chlorophyll molecules
calvin cycle and how they are the reverse of Kreb's cycle	1. CO2 fed into cycle (K: CO2 released) 2. reducing power used, NADPH (K: NADPH made) 3. energy used (K: energy formed)
xylem	brings water to leaf from root
phloem	carry manufactured food out of leaf
nitrifying bacteria	oxidize ammonia and nitrites into nitrates
denitrifying bacteria	make N2 (inert)
guard cells	open/close stomata during day to allow CO2 in for photosynthesis and close them at night to limit water loss 1) open: turgor, swell w/water due to osmosis ebcause of high glucose content 2.) close: cell turgor decreases, closes
spongy layer	stomata open into air spaces, increase surface area for gas diffusion, contain chloroplase
palisade	layer of elongated chloroplast containing cells
spongy bone	less dense, fill of spicules (sight of yellow/red bone marrow)
yellow marrow	inactive, infiltrated by adipose tissue
red marrow	blood cell formation
osteoclasts	multibucleated cells, bone resorption (breakdown)
endochondral ossification	cartilage replaced by bone (long bones)
intramembranous ossification	mesenchymal (embryonic, undifferentiated) connective tissue transformed into bone
skeletal muscle	multinucleated cells
proximal vs distal	proximal: where appendage joins body at "ORIGIN" distal: point furthest away from point of attachment to body at "INSERTION:
ligaments	hold bones together
tendons	attach muscle to bones and bnd the skeleton at movable joints
progression of action potential in muscles	1) action potential generated by increasing permeability of sarcolemma of muscle fiber 2. potential conducted along sarcolemma and t system 3. AP goes into interior or muscle fiber 4. sarcoplasmic reticulum releases CA ions 5. Ca ions initiate contrac
simple twitch	response of single muscle fiber to brief stimulus'
summation	summation: prolonged contractions
tetanus	stimulus so frequent that muscle cannot relax
which muscles are myogenic?	myogenic: capable of contracting without stimulation from nerve cells, smooth and cardiac muscles
cystopharynx	paramecium, like oral cavity
What is the heart's pacemaker and where is it found?	sinatrial node (SA node) in right atrium
accelerator nerve	sympathetic nervous system, regulates SA node
vagus nerve	parasympathetic, regulates SA node
progression of nerves in heart	SA node, AV node, bundle of His (AV bundle) transports contraction through the ventricles via Purkinje fibers