Levels of Organization (smallest to largest)

1. Chemical: The simplest/smallest level of organization
   • Molecule: Made up of atoms, the smallest unit of matter
     • Two or more atoms form a molecule
     • Molecules combine to form substances like proteins, carbohydrates & fats
2. Cellular: involving the cells of an organism
   • Cell: a self sufficient component of life, the building blocks of all living things
   • Organelle: “little organ” that performs various functions within each cell
     • Membranous
     • Non-membranous
3. Tissue: Groups of cells that form different structures
   • Epithelial: skin
   • Connective: most abundant, fascia
   • Muscle: smooth, skeletal, cardiac
   • Nervous: nerves & brain
4. Organ: Groups of tissue With a special function
5. Organ System: groups of organs with a specific role in the body
6. Organism: a total living form; one individual
7. Community: a group of individual organisms living in one geographic location

Cellular Anatomy

1. Chemical compounds: All body structures are made up of chemical compounds that interact to produce tissues and cellular processes that make up all bodily functions. This is called a chemical reaction.
   • Inorganic Substance: small simple compounds that are required for water transport and cellular activities
   • Organic Substance: Large complex compounds containing carbon. Building blocks of body structures and serve as cellular fuel for energy used for body functions. Help regulate other chemical reactions in the body that are necessary for life.
2. Cytoplasm: Cytosol (intercellular fluid) which contains ions, nutrients, waste products, fluid surrounding soluble and insoluble (cytoskeletal) proteins.
   • Matrix: the substance between cells/ tissues made up of ground substance and fibers. Provides support for cellular growth and function.
   • Water: most abundant substance in cell
3. Membranous Organelles:
   • Plasma membrane: The thin delicate membrane that surrounds every cell.
     • Physical isolation (barrier), the cell membrane regulates the passage of materials into and out of the cell. This is called selective permeability.
     • Structural support
     • Regulation of exchange of materials with environment (membrane transport)
   • Phospholipid bilayer: the membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipids that are arranged with their hydrophobic tails facing inwards and their hydrophilic heads facing outward. This means that the cell attracts water and materials from the outside of the cell and resists allowing internal fluid from leaving the cell.
   • Nucleus: Houses the cell’s genetic material
   • Nucleic acids: these are DNA and RNA
     • DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, the primary structure is the double helix
     • RNA: Ribonucleic acid
     • Nucleotides: DNA and RNA are composed of small acid units
     • DNA replication: the process of replication results in two exactly matching strands of DNA
   • Mitochondria: major site of cellular energy production, i.e. synthesis of ATP: adenosine triphosphate. It contains many internal folds called aristae. These folds increase surface area inside each mitochondrion to increase the amount of ATP produced. “The Power Plant”
     • Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): is the primary source of energy for cells in the body. ATP releases energy into the cells & tissues through a process called catabolism.
     • Catabolism: the process of breaking down (metabolism) of complex substances into simpler substances with releases energy.
   • Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER): is a system of membranes that extends throughout the cytoplasm of many cells.
   • Smooth ER: lipid synthesis and detoxification of toxins and drugs, storage
   • Rough ER: protein synthesis, transportation of proteins and storage
   • Golgi Apparatus: responsible for processing, packaging and storage of materials for secretion from cells
   • Lysosomes (and Peroxisomes): contain digestive enzymes that break down cell wastes and toxins.
     • Phagocytosis: is performed to “eat” bacteria and waste products
4. Non-Membranous organelles:
   • Cytoskeleton: provides structure, support and assists with internal movement
     • Microfilaments: slender strands consisting of chains of actin molecules (actin is a protein) that provide structural support and mobility, influences the cell shape
     • Microtubules:
       • Provide structure (rigidity)
       • Involved in movement of organelles ‘railroad tracks’ of the cell
       • Involved in mitosis
       • Attach to the centromere, or center of the chromosomes in the cell during division.
   • Centrioles: growth center for microtubules: involved in cell division (mitosis)
   • Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis, located on ER
   • Cilia and Flagella: Microtubules containing extensions of the plasma membrane involved in cellular mobility (cell motion), movement if fluids along cell surfaces and sensitive to environment
   • Celluar Function
     • Metabolism: the chemical reaction that occurs in cells to effect transformation, production or consumption of energy.
     • Catabolism: the process of breaking down (metabolizing) of complex substances into simpler substances which releases energy
     • Anabolism: the process of simple substances combines through chemical reaction to form bigger and more complex substances (cells/tissues)

Regulation and Exchange

1. Passive transport
   • Diffusion: random movement of molecules across the lipid bilayer of the cells plasma membrane
     • Moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
   • Osmosis: the diffusion of water across a membrane from a high concentration to a low concentration
   • Phagocytosis: when a cell actively engulfs a foreign body. The cell “eats” the foreign body, usually seen with white blood cells
2. Active transport
   • When a cell moves particles across it’s membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. It works against the concentration gradient
   • This is used by cells to bring in necessary nutrients without releasing any of its internal fluid.

Cell Cycle

1. Mitosis: all of our body cells (except sex cells) go through a cellular division and replication process called mitosis. Mitosis is the exact duplication of one cell into multiple cells. Mitosis is replication of the same cell to form specific tissues and structures. These structures differentiate and become different tissues and organs.
2. Interphase: All 23 pairs of chromosomes in somatic cells (body cells) duplicate inside of the nucleus during this long phase
3. Prophase: the nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear. Long thread like bodies of chromatin become evident and begin to condense into the form of chromosomes. Chromatin is random pieces of DNA that are present in the nucleus. This chromatin does not condense into particular chromosomes until this stage.
4. Metaphase: alignment of chromosomes along the center line of the cell (equator). The spindle like threads from the spindle apparatus have taken hold of the chromosomes at their center area called the centromere.
5. Anaphase: separation of each chromosome into “sister chromatids.” The chromatids are pulled to the opposite side or poles of the cell.
6. Telophase: actual cellular division (separation) of the cell in a cleavage process known as cytokinesis.

Tissue:

1. Epithelial: Protects the body by forming the covering and lining of all body cavities and surfaces. Functions to protect underlying tissues and structures. Some are specialized to secrete chemicals (hormones) from glands. Can be classified as simple, stratified, pseudostatified or squamous.
2. Connective: Joins together other tissues through the formation of a matrix or framework to support and protect the body. Connective tissue is the most common type of tissue in the body. It can be found in almost every organ and system in the body. Collagen, bone, elastic fibers, adipose, blood and lymph are all examples of connective tissue.
3. Muscle: Composed of specialized cells that are able to contract (shorten) on impulse. Can be voluntary or involuntary. Muscle cells are named fibers because of their long slender shape. The types of muscle fibers include striated skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
4. Nervous: Made up of nerve cells (neurons) that are specialized to send and receive neural impulses that transmit messages within the body. Internal communication is controlled by the Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) which receives impulses from the Peripheral Nervous System which includes the senses. Nerve tissue is made up of nerve cells and Glial cells.
5. Tissue building cells:
   • Fibroblasts: cells that produce the fibers of connective tissue
   • Osteoblasts: cells that produce bone
   • Chondroblasts: cells that produce collagen
   • Macrophages: large scavenger cells that move through connective tissue and phagocytize, “eat”, debris and clean up foreign matter.

Cancer

1. Etiology: Cancer is the growth of malignant cells into tumors that invade tissues and spread throughout the body.
   • There are over 100 different types of cancer causes and types. Cancer is recorded to kill an average of 5550,000 people in the US yearly.
   • DNA within the cells mutate and cause irregular growth. This mutated DNA is called an Oncogene.
   • The study of cancer is Oncology.
2. Steps of Cancer growth
   • Initiation: the DNA of the cell mutates which influences the cells to grow rapidly, thus pilling up on each other beginning the creation of the primary tumor.
   • Promotion: the mutated cells begin to proliferate or rapidly grow and flourish.
   • Progression: the mutated cells have not become malignant which indicates that they are capable of causing deleterious effects on the body.
   • Metastasis: this stage does not always occur. If the cancer is aggressive it will spread (metastasize). This is the spreading of the cancerous cells to other areas remote from the initial cancer site creating a second tumor.
3. Causes:
   • Carcinogens: this is a chemical or other environmental agent that produces cancer
     • Examples are hydrocarbons found in cigarette tar, UV light, excessive x-rays, asbestos, benzene and other trace metals.
   • Viruses: several types of viruses have been linked to various types of cancer. A virus is a microscopic organism that invades the body.
   • Genetics: It may be that people have a genetic predisposition towards getting cancer. Cancer researchers are now looking at the phenomenon of apoptosis or programmed cell death because a specific gene has been found to inhibit it. Cancer may be as much caused by cells that refuse to die as it is by cells coming to life.
4. Signs and Symptoms:
   • Cancer is often painless until it is too late
   • Look for a change in bowel or bladder habits
   • A sore that does not heal
   • Unusual bleeding or drainage
   • Thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere
   • Indigestion or swallowing difficulty
   • A change in a wart or mole
   • Persistent cough or hoarseness
5. Treatment
   • Chemotherapy: these drugs target fast growing cells including cancerous tumors, skin, stomach and blood cells.
   • Radiation: high-energy rays are focused on tumors to kill them or at least slow them down.
   • Surgery: full excision of the tumor.
   • Hormones: Suppression of hormones that cause the growth of tumors.
   • Hypothermia: cryotherapy used to “freeze” the tumor off the skin.
   • Anti-blood vessel growing drugs: limits the size of the tumor.
6. Massage: indicated depending on the situation of the client. When working on cancer patients, the massage therapist must work under the supervision, direction and approval of the primary care physician. Some cancer patients can greatly benefit from massage as a form of relaxation and stress relief.