| Question |
Answer |
| List the 4 types of non-specific defenses in the human body. | 1. anatomic: skin and tears
2. physiologic: temp. and pH
3. phagocytic: macrophages and neutrophils
4. inflammatory: vasodilation |
| list for 4 functions of gibberellins | 1. stimulate rapid stem elongation
2. inhibit formation of new roots
3. stimulate the production of new phloem cells by cambium
4. terminate dormancy of seeds and buds |
| What inhibits growth of lateral buds? | auxins |
| What does ethylene do (plants)? | stimulates fruit ripening |
| What is the chorion?
1) external development
2) internal development
| 1. lines the inside of the shell and permits gas exchange through the egg shells
2. a membrane that completely surrounds the amnion, placenta formation begins here |
| What is the allantois?
external development
| sac like, involved in respiration and excretion
contains many blood vessels to transport O2, CO2, water, salt, and nitrogenous wastes |
| What is the allantois?
internal development | develops as outpocket of gut
blood vessels enlarge and become umbilical vessels which connect the fetus to the placenta |
| What is the Amnion?
(internal and external) | Thin tough membrane that contains the amniotic fluid.
provides aqueous environment which protects developing embryo from shock |
| Yolk sac?
1. external
2. internal | 1.encloses the yolk, blood vessels in yolk sac transfer food to embryo.
2. site of early deveopment of blood vessels, becomes associated w/umbilical vessels |
| List the layers surrounding the embryo from innermost to outermost. (4 layers)
internal developement | 1. allantois/yolk sac (umbilical vessels)
2. amnion
3. chorion
4. uterine lining |
| List the layers surrounding the embryo from innermost to outermost. (4 layers)
external developement | 1. amnion
2. allantois/yolk sac
3. chorion
4. shell |
| 1. What is the male organ of a flower?
2. What are its components and what do they do (2 things) | 1. stamen
2. Stalk like "filament" and terminal sac called the "anther"
The anther produces haploid spores which develope into pollen grains. |
| 1. What is the female organ and
2. What are its 3 parts? | 1. Pistil
2. "Stigma" - sticky top part that catches pollen
"Style" tube-like structure, connects stigma
"Ovary" base of pistil, contains ovule (each has monoploid egg nucleus) |
| What is the epicotyl? | seed formation: precursor of the upper stem and leaves |
| What is the cotyledons? | seed formation: seed leaves |
| what is the hypocotyl? | develops into the lower stem and root |
| What is the endosperm? | Grows and feeds the embryo
in dicots the cotyledon absorbs the endosperm |
| What does the seed coat develop from? | develops from the outer covering of the ovule
embryo + seed coat = seed |
| 1. What is the male gametophyte? (plants)
2. What is it made of? | 1. The pollen grain.
2. Contains a tube nucleus and a generative nucleus (made by mitosis of a microspore. |
| How are male gametes made? (plants) | pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma and the generative nucleus divides to form sperm nuclei which are the gametes |
| 1. What does the female gametophyte develop from and where? (plants)
2. What is it? | 1. Develops in the ovule from one of 4 spores.
2. it's the embryo sac and contains nuclei including the two polar (endosperm) nuclei and an egg nucleus |
| 1. How does fertilization occur? (plants)
2. What do the 2 sperm nuclei do? | 1. when the sperm nuclei enter the embryo sac
2. one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to form the diploid zygote. The other fuses with the 2 polar bodies to form the endosperm (triploid) |
| In what order does air enter the body? | nose, pharynx (throat), larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli |
| What body parts are derived from the ectoderm? | integument (epidermis, hair, nails, epithelium of nose, mouth, and anal canal), lens of the eye, retina, nervous system |
| 1. How many ATP are produced during glycolysis?
2. What other cofacter is produced and how many? | 1. 4 ATP are produced but 2 are used up, so only a net of 2 ATP are produced
2. 2 NADH are produced |
| How many ATP are made via substrate level phosphorpylation? | 4 |
| How much ATP is produced per glucose molecule in anaerobic conditions and what is the process call? | 2 ATP via fermentation |
| In what organisms does alcohol fermentation occur and what is pyruvate converted into? | yeast and bacteria, pyruvate -> ethanol |
| Why does fermentation occur? | absence of oxygen, regenerates NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue |
| What does inhaled 02 do in respiration? | it is the final O acceptor and generates water |
| What is exhaled CO2 from? | from ingested glucose generated from the decarboxylation of pyruvate |
| What is derived from the mesoderm? | musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, excretory system, conenctive tissue throughout body, portions of digestive and respiratory organs |
| What is derived from the endoderm? | epithelial linings of digestive system and respiratory tract (lungs), parts of the liver, pancreas, thyroid, and bladder lining |
| What is the heart derived from? | Mesoderm |
| What is the thyroid derived from? | endoderm |
| What is the bladder lining derived from? | endoderm |
| What is the liver derived from? | endoderm |
| what are the lungs derived from? | endoderm
|
| what is the nervous system derived from? | ectoderm
|
| what is the circulatory system derived from? | mesoderm |
| What are direct hormones? | directly stimulate target organ |
| What are tropic hormones? | stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones |
| Growth hormones | Anterior pituitary, direct, peptide hormone, promotes bone an dmuscle growth
children: dwarfism, gigantism
adults: acromegaly |
| prolactin | Anterior pituitary, direct, peptide hormone, stimulates milk production and secretion in female mammary glands |
| endorphines | Anterior pituitary, direct, peptide hormone, inhibit perception of pain |
| adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) | Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, strimulates adrenal cortex to synthesize and release glucocorticoids |
| corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) | regulates ACTH |
| TSH | Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, stimulates thyroid |
| LH | Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone
females: stimulates ovulation and formation of corpus luteum
males: stimulates interstitial cells of testes to synthesize testosterone |
| FSH | Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone,
females: maturation of ovarian follicles which begin secreting estrogen
males: maturation of seminiferous tubules and sperm production |
| MSH | Anterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, skin pigment |
| oxytocin | posterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, secreted during childbirth, increases strength and frequency of uterine muscle contractions |
| ADH | posterior pituitary, tropic, peptide hormone, AKA vasopressin, AKA antidiuretic hormone, increases permeability of nephron's COLLECTING DUCT when blood osmolarity increases or when blood volume decreases |
| which part of the brain has osmoreceptors? | hypothalamus |
| what is cretinism? | hypothyroidism in infants |
| calcitonin | thyroid |
| glucagon | pancreas, alpha cells |
| insulin | pancreas, beta cells |
| diabetes mellitus | insensitivity to insulin, characterized by hyperglycemia |
| renin | kidneys, converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I which is converted to angiotensin II which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secret ALDOSTERONE |
| melatonin | pineal gland |
| gastrin | gastrointestinal hormone, stimulates glands to release HCL in response to food in stomach |
| secretin | small intestine, when acidic food material enters stomach, stimulates secretion of bicarbonate by pancrease |
| cholecystokinin | small intestine, response to presence of fats, causes contraction of gall bladder and release of bile into small intestine |
| vitamin d | steroid hormone, works with kidneys and adolsterone |
| (cortisol, cortisone) | adrenal cortex, glucocorticoids, steroid hormone, raise blood glucose levels by promoting protein breakdown and GLUCONEOGENSIS |
| (aldosterone) | adrenal cortex, mineral corticoids, steroid hormone, reuptake of sodium, excretion of K, results in rise in blood volume and pressure |
| What is hypertension and what can cause it? | high blood pressure, overproduction of aldosterone |
| Androgens | adrenal cortex, steroid hormone, male sex hormones |
| epinephrine, norepinephrine | adrenal medulla, CATECHOLAMINES (amino acid derived compound), increases conversion of glycogen to glucose, increase basal metabolic rate, dilate eyes, FIGHT OR FLIGHT, sympathetic nervous system |
| how does an action potential begin? | generated when cell becomes sufficiently depolarized (less negative), voltage gated NA channels open IN down gradient response to depolarization
NA channels close, K channels open and allow K to rush OUT down gradient |
| What is repolarization? | when K rushes into the cell, returning the cell to more negative potential |
| What is hyperpolarization? | When the neuron shoots past its resting potential and becomes even more negative inside than normal |
| refractory period | when its difficult or impossible to initiate anotehr action potential due to hyperpolarization |
| A larger diameter of the axon would lead to... | faster impulse travel |
| The more intense a stimulus... | the more frequent the action potentials |
| What are effector cells? | cells that neurons communicate with other than other neurons like MUSCLES or GLANDS |
| What do neurotransmitters do? | depolarize post synaptic cell and cause consequent firing of an action potential |
| afferent neuron | neurons that carry sensory info about the external or internal environment to the brain or spinal cord |
| efference neurons | carry motor commands from brain or spinal cord to body |
| interneuron | participate in local circuits, link sensory and motor neuron in brain and spinal cord, bodies and nerve terminals in same location |
| What are nerves? | bundles of axons covered in connective tissue |
| plexus | network of nerve fibers |
| ganglia | clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the periphery |
| nuclei (nerves) | clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the central nervous system |
| cerebral cortex | forebrain, telecephalon, processes and integrates sensory input and motor responses, important for memory and creative thought |
| olfactory bulb | forebrain,telencephalon, center for reception and integration of olfactory input |
| thalamus | forebrain,diencephalon, relay and integration center for the spinal cord and cerebral cortex |
| hypothalamus | forebrain,diencephalon, controls visceral functions: hunger, thirst, sex drive, water balance, blood pressure, temp regulation; also important role in endocrine system |
| midbrain | relay center for visual and auditory impulses, also important role in motor control |
| cerebellum | hindbrain, modulate motor impulses impulses initiated by cerebral cortex, important in MAINTENANCE OF BALANCE, HAND EYE COORDINATION, and TIMING OF RAPID MOVEMENTS |
| pons | hindbrain, relay center allows cortex to communicate with cerebellum |
| medulla | hindbrain, controls breathing, heart rate, gastrointestinal activity |
| brainstem | midbrain, pons, and medulla |
| reflexes | integration of simple motor responses by the spine, sensory fibers synapse difrectly on ventral horn motor fibers
can sometimes include interneurons |
| dorsal horn | where sensory info enters the spinal cord |
| ventral horn | where motor info exits spinal cord |
| somatic nervous system | peripheral nervous system, innevates skeletal muscles and responsible for voluntary movement |
| autonomic nervous system | peripheral nervous system, involuntary, innervates CARDIAC and SMOOTH muscle |
| smooth muscle | found in blood vessels, digestive tract, bladder, and bronchi |
| sympathetic | peripheral nervous system, autonomic, fight or flight, uses norepinephrine as primary neurotransmitter |
| parasympathetic | peripheral nervous system, autonomic, rest and digest, uses acetylcholine as primary neurotransmitter |
| sclera | opaque layer of eye, thick |
| choroid | beneath sclera of eye, helps supply retina with blood |
| retina | innermost layer of eye, contains photo receptors that sense light |
| cornea | transparent at front of eye, bends and focuses light rays |
| pupil | opening in eye that allows light through, controlled by IRIS |
| lens | suspended behind pupil, shape and focal length controlled by CILLIARY MUSCLES, focus image onto retina |
| photoreceptor cells synapse onto-> 1) synapse onto-> 2) | 1) bipolar cells
2) ganglion cells |
| optic nerve | bundle of axons of ganglion cells |
| vitreous humor | jelly like material in eye, helps maintain shape and optical properties |
| aqueous humor | formed by the eye and exits through ducts to join venous blood |
| fovea | densely packed cones, important for acuity vision |
| cataracts | lens becomes opaque |
| glaucoma | increased pressure in eye due to blocking of outflow of aqueus humor |
| astigmatism | iregularly shaped eye |
| hyperopia | farsightedness, image focused BEHIND retina |
| progression of sound through ear | outer ear , auditory canal, tympanic membrane, ossicles, oval window, inner ear, cochlea, vestibular apparatus, hair cells on basilar membrane |
| tympanic membrain | eardrum |
| ossicles | (malleus, incus, stapes) amplify stimulus and transmits through oval window |
| cochlea | inner eaer |
| vestibular membrain | inner ear, maintain equilibrium |
| basilar membrane | inner ear, transduce pressure into action potentials which travel via auditory nerve to brain |
| where does photosynthesis take place? | chloroplast, has chlorophyl pigment |
| stroma | fluid matrix of chloroplast |
| grana | stacks of thlyakoid sacs |
| What do light reactions do? | convert solar energy into chemical energy |
| what do dark reactions do? | incorporate CO2 into organic molecules (CARBON FIXATION), also called reduction synthesis because carbs are produced by reducing CO2 |
| cyclic e flow | P700, produce ATP, uses ferrodoxin |
| noncyclic e flow | P700->P680, , P700 becomes powerful oxidizing agent, water split make O2
net result: ATP, NADPH, O2 |
| photoionization | escape of high energy electrons from chlorophyll molecules |
| calvin cycle and how they are the reverse of Kreb's cycle | 1. CO2 fed into cycle (K: CO2 released)
2. reducing power used, NADPH (K: NADPH made)
3. energy used (K: energy formed) |
| xylem | brings water to leaf from root |
| phloem | carry manufactured food out of leaf |
| nitrifying bacteria | oxidize ammonia and nitrites into nitrates |
| denitrifying bacteria | make N2 (inert) |
| guard cells | open/close stomata during day to allow CO2 in for photosynthesis and close them at night to limit water loss
1) open: turgor, swell w/water due to osmosis ebcause of high glucose content
2.) close: cell turgor decreases, closes |
| spongy layer | stomata open into air spaces, increase surface area for gas diffusion, contain chloroplase |
| palisade | layer of elongated chloroplast containing cells |
| spongy bone | less dense, fill of spicules (sight of yellow/red bone marrow) |
| yellow marrow | inactive, infiltrated by adipose tissue |
| red marrow | blood cell formation |
| osteoclasts | multibucleated cells, bone resorption (breakdown) |
| endochondral ossification | cartilage replaced by bone (long bones) |
| intramembranous ossification | mesenchymal (embryonic, undifferentiated) connective tissue transformed into bone |
| skeletal muscle | multinucleated cells |
| proximal vs distal | proximal: where appendage joins body at "ORIGIN"
distal: point furthest away from point of attachment to body at "INSERTION: |
| ligaments | hold bones together |
| tendons | attach muscle to bones and bnd the skeleton at movable joints |
| progression of action potential in muscles | 1) action potential generated by increasing permeability of sarcolemma of muscle fiber
2. potential conducted along sarcolemma and t system
3. AP goes into interior or muscle fiber
4. sarcoplasmic reticulum releases CA ions
5. Ca ions initiate contrac |
| simple twitch | response of single muscle fiber to brief stimulus' |
| summation | summation: prolonged contractions |
| tetanus | stimulus so frequent that muscle cannot relax |
| which muscles are myogenic? | myogenic: capable of contracting without stimulation from nerve cells, smooth and cardiac muscles |
| cystopharynx | paramecium, like oral cavity |
| What is the heart's pacemaker and where is it found? | sinatrial node (SA node) in right atrium |
| accelerator nerve | sympathetic nervous system, regulates SA node |
| vagus nerve | parasympathetic, regulates SA node |
| progression of nerves in heart | SA node, AV node, bundle of His (AV bundle) transports contraction through the ventricles via Purkinje fibers |
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