Question | Answer |
Anatomy | the scientific discipline that investigates the body's structure |
Cytology | examines the structural features of cells |
Histology | the study of tissues and the materials surrounding them |
gross anatomy | the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope |
anatomic imaging | involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures |
physiology | the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things |
organelle | a small structure contained within a cell that performs one or more specific functions |
cell | the basic living units of all plants and animals |
tissue | a group of cells with similar structure and function that have extracellular substances located between them |
organs | composed of 2 or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions |
organism | any living thing considered as a whole |
metabolism | ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction |
differentiation | changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized |
reproduction | the formation of new cells or new organisms |
homeostasis | the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body |
variables | conditions with values that can change |
set point | the ideal normal value |
negative feedback | any deviation from the set point is made smaller or resisted |
3 components of negative feedback system | receptor
control center
effector |
receptor | monitors the value of some variable |
control center | establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained |
effector | can change the value of the variable |
deviation from set point is called? | stimulus |
positive feedback | when a deviation from normal value occurs, the responds of the system is to make the deviation even greater |
3 cavities of the trunk: | thoracic
abdominal
pelvic |
thoracic cavity | surrounded by the rib cage and separated from the abdominal cavity by a muscular diaphragm |
abdominal cavity | bound by the abdominal muscles and contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys |
pelvic cavity | a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs |
serous membranes | cover the organs of the trunk and line the trunk cavities |
visceral serous membranes | cover the organs of the trunk |
parietal serous membranes | lines the trunk cavity |
3 serous membranes of thoracic cavity: | 1-pericardial
2,3-pleural cavities |
pericardial cavity | surrounds the heart |
pleural cavity | surrounds lungs |
peritoneal cavity | serous membrane lined cavity in the abdominopelvic cavity |
superior | higher, a structure above another |
inferior | lower, a structure below another |
cephalic | closer to the head than another structure |
caudal | closer to the tail than another structure |
anterior | the front of the body |
posterior | the back of the body |
ventral | toward the belly |
dorsal | toward the back |
proximal | closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure |
distal | farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure |
lateral | away from the midline of the body |
medial | toward the midline of the body |
superficial | toward or on the surface |
deep | away from the surface, interal |
matter | anything that occupies space and has mass |
element | the simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties |
atom | the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical characteristics of that element |
atomic number | the number of protons in each atom of an element |
mass number | the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each atom of an element |
isotopes | 2 or more forms of the same element that have the same number of protons and electrons, but a different number of neutrons |
ion | a charged particle formed when an atom loses or gains electrons and the number of protons and electrons is no longer equal |
cations | positively charged ions |
anions | negatively charged ions |
chemical bonding | occurs when the outermost electrons are transferred or shared between atoms |
3 categories of chemical bonds | ionic bond
covalent bond
metallic bond |
ionic bond | complete transfer of electrons between 2 atoms |
covalent bond | when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons |
metallic bond | the outermost electrons are shared equally among all the atoms in the sample |
most common type of chemical bond? | covalent bond |
chemical reactions | atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds interact either to form or break chemical bonds |
reactants | the substances that enter into a chemical reaction |
products | the substances that result from the chemical reaction |
synthesis reactions | when 2 or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product |
dehydration reactions | synthesis reactions in which water is a product |
decomposition reactions | a larger reactant is broken down into 2 or more smaller products |
hydrolysis reactions | reactions that use water to split the reactant into 2 parts |
anabolism | synthesis reactions that occur in the body. Growth, maintenance, and repair of the body cannot take place without anabolic reactions |
catabolism | decomposition reactions that occur within the body. Examples are the digestion of food molecules and breakdown of fat stores. |
Factors that influence the rate of chemical reactions: | 1-how easily the substances REACT with one another
2-the CONCENTRATION of the reactants
3-TEMPERATURE
4-presence of a CATALYST |
catalyst | a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being permanently changed or depleted |
enzyme | an organic catalyst of biologic origin |
energy | the capacity to do work |
potential energy | stored energy that could do work, but is not doing so |
kinetic energy | the form of energy that actually does work |
electric energy | involves the movement of ions or electrons// a flow of electrons |
chemical energy | energy that's locked up in chemical bonds // results from the relative positions and interactions among a substance's subatomic particles |
mechanical energy | energy resulting from the position or movement of an object |
heat | the energy that flows between objects that are at different temperatures. |
All forms of energy can be converted into | heat energy |
inorganic chemistry | deals with those substances that do not contain carbon |
organic chemistry | the study of carbon-containing substances |
2/3 of our body is | water |
The plasma portion of blood is _% water? | 92 |
acid | a proton donor |
base | a proton acceptor |
ph scale | the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution |
OH- | hydroxyl ion |
H+ | hydrogen ion |
H+ concentration increases as substances are more ___ | acidic |
OH- increases as substances are more | alkaline |
ph scale is not linear, it is__ | logarithmic |
pH of hydrochloric acid (HCl) | 0 |
pH of stomach acid | 1 |
ph of lemon juice | 2 |
ph of vinegar, cola, or beer | 3 |
ph of tomatoes | 4 |
ph of black coffee | 5 |
ph of urine | 6 |
ph of saliva | 6.5 |
ph of water | 7 |
ph of blood | 7.4 |
ph of seawater | 8 |
ph of baking soda | 9 |
ph of Great Salt Lake | 10 |
ph of household ammonia | 11 |
ph of soda ash | 12 |
ph of oven cleaner | 13 |
ph of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) | 14 |
salt | compounds formed by the interaction of an acid and base in which the hydrogen ions of the acid are replaced by the positive ions of the base (ex-HCl+NaOH=NaCl) |
Buffer | compounds that resist changes in solution ph when either acids or bases are added//donate or accept protons to keep ph the same |
carbohydrate | made primarily from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and sued for quick energy and short term energy storage |
monosaccharides | "one sugar", the building blocks of larger carbohydrates
ex-glucose |
disaccharides | composed of 2 simple sugars bound together through a dehydration reaction
ex-sucrose=glucose+fructose |
polysacchardies | many monosaccharide units bound together to make long chains. |
glycogen | polysaccharide found in animals |
polysaccharides found in plants | starch and cellulose |
isomers | molecules that have the same number and types of atoms but differ in their 3 dimensional arrangement
ex-glucose, fructose, and galactose are all C6H12O6 |
lipids | structures such as fats and oils, they do not dissolve in water |
fatty acids | consist of a straight chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl attached at one end |
glycerol | a three carbon molecule with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon |
triacylglycerols are also called | triglycerides |
what constitutes 95% of the fats in the human body | triglycerides |
saturated fatty acids | contain only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms, fully hydrogenated
ex-butter, lard |
carbon always has how many bonds? | 4 |
unsaturated fats | contain 1 or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms
ex-olive oil, corn oil |
double bonds make molecules more __ and more like a __ | flexible, liquid |
phospholipids | similar to triglycerides, except that one of the fatty acids bound to the glycerol is replaced by a molecule containing phosphate |
__ are important compononts of cell membranes | phospholipids |
_ have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail | phospholipids |
steroids | lipids that have a structure that differs entirely from that of fats
ex-cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone |
proteins | contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen bound together by covalent bonds. |
most proteins contain some __ | sulfur |
amino acids | the building blocks of proteins |
Protein Structure names | 1-Primary
2-Secondary
3-Tertiary
4-Quaternary |
Primary Structure of protein | determined by the SEQUENCE of amino acids bound by peptide bonds |
Secondary structure of proteins | results from FOLDING/BENDING of the polypeptide chain caused by hydrogen bonds between amino acids |
2 common shapes of folded polypeptide chains | helices and pleated sheets |
tertiary structure | folding of the helices or pleated sheets |
quarternary structure | refers to the spatial relationship between protein subunits, when 2 or more proteins associate |
active site | the specific site where reactants must bind to the enzyme |
cofactors | non-protein substances that some enzymes require to be functional
ex-magnesium & zinc ions and organic molecules |
coenzymes | organic molecules such as vitamins required to make certain enzymes functional |
lipase | catalyzes the breakdown of lipids |
protease | an enzyme that breaks down protein |
DNA | the genetic information of cells |
RNA | the 3 types of RNA play impoortant roles in protein synthesis |
2 types of nucleic acids: | deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
Who discovered DNA? | Watson & Crick |
When was DNA discovered? | 1952 |
What book did Watson & Crick write? | " The Double Helix " |
nucleotides | the basic building blocks of nucleic acids |
components of nucleotides: | monosaccharides (pentose sugar)
nitrogenous base
phosphate group |
nitrogenous bases | purines & pyrimidines |
purines | guanine & adenine |
pyrimidines | cytosine, thymine, and uracil |
ATP consists of: | adenine
ribose sugar
3 phosphate groups |
ATP is capable of storing and providing ___ | energy |
Calcium (Ca2+) | part of bones and teeth; functions in blood clotting, muscle contraction, release of neurotransmitters |
Sodium (Na+) | membrane potentials, water balance |
potassium (K+) | membrane potentials |
hydrogen (H+) | acid-base balance |
hydroxide (OH-) | acid-base balance |
Chloride (Cl-) | water balance |
bicarbonate (HCO3-) | acid-base balance |
ammonium (NH4+) | acid-base balance |
phosphate (PO43-) | part of bones and teeth; functions in energy exchange, acid-base balance |
Iron (Fe2+) | red blood cell formation |
Magnesium (Mg2+) | necessary for enzymes |
Iodide (I-) | present in thyroid hormones |
light microscopes | allow us to visualize general features of cells |
electron microscope | used to study the fine structure of cells, much higher magnification |
2 kinds of electron miscroscopes | 1-scanning electron microscope (SEM)
2-transmission electron miscroscope (TEM) |
scanning electron microscope | allows us to see the features of the CELL SURFACE and the SURFACES of internal structures |
transmission electron microscope | allows us to see THROUGH parts of the cell and discover other aspects of cell structures |
plasma membrane | the outermost component of the cell, composed of a bilayer of phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins floating in the membrane |
channel proteins | one or more integral proteins arranged so that they form a tiny channel through the plasma membrane |
receptor molecules | proteins in the cell membrane with an exposed binding site on the outer cell surface |
marker molecules | cell surface molecules that allow cells to identify and attach to each other. These are mostly glycoproteins and glycolipids |
cytoplasm- | the cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane, it is about 1/2 cytosol and 1/2 organelles |
cytosol consists of: | fluid
cytoskeletal
cytoplasmic inclusions |
fluid portion of cytosol | a solution with dissolved ions, molecules, and a colloid with suspended molecules, mostly proteins. many of these proteins are enzymes |
cytoskeletal portion of cytosol | supports the cell and holds the nucleus and organelles in placea |
cytoplasmic inclusions | aggregates of chemicals either produced by the cell or taken in by the cell, ex: glycogen, hemoglobin |
organelles | small structures on the inside of the cell that are specialized for particular functions. |
most organelles have double membranes that are similar to the | plasma membrane |
the number and type of organelles within each cell are related to | the specific structure and function of that cell |
nucleus (fx) | control center of the cell; DNA within the nucleus regulates protein synthesis and therefore the chemical reactions of the cell |
ribosome (fx) | serves as site of protein synthesis |
rough endoplasmic reticulum (fx) | synthesizes proteins and transports them to Golgi apparatus |
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (fx) | manufactures lipids and carbohydrates, detoxifies harmful substances, stores calcium |
golgi apparatus (fx) | modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use |
mitochondria (fx) | major sites of atp synthesis when oxygen is available |
nucleus- | enclosed by nuclear envelope, double membrane with nuclear pores, contains chromatin, DNA, and associated proteins |
ribosome | ribosomal RNA and proteins form large and small subunits; some are attached to ER whereas others are distributed through cytoplasm |
RER | membranous tubules and flattened sacs with attached ribosomes |
SER | membranous tubules and flattened sacs with no attached ribosomes |
golgi apparatus | flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other |
mitochondria | spherical, rod-shaped, or threadlike structures;enclosed by double membrane; inner membrane forms projections called cristae, open space called matrix |
centrioles | pair of cylindrical organelles in the centrosome, consisting of triplets of parallel microtubules |
centrioles (fx) | serve as centers for microtubule formation; determine cell polarity during cell division; form the basal bodies of cilia and flagella |
cilia | extensions of the plasma membrane containing doublets of parallel microtubules, 10 microns in length |
cilia (fx) | move materials over the surface of cells |
flagellum | extension of the plasma membrane containing doublets of parallel microtubules; 55 microns in length |
flagellum (fx) | propels sperm |
microvilli | extension of the plasma membrane containing microfilaments |
microvilli (fx) | increase surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption and secretion; modified to form sensory receptors |
4 ways that substances can cross the plasma membrane | 1-directly through lipid bilayer
2-through membrane channels
3-with carrier molecules in the membrane
4-in vesicles |
diffusion | the tendency for solute molecules to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration |
mediated transport mechanisms | involve carrier molecules within the plasma membrane that move large water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across the plasma membrane |
active transport | a carrier mediated process that requires energy provided by ATP |
endocytosis | refers to the bulk of uptake of material through the plasma membrane by the formation of a vesicle |
pinocytosis | uptake of liquid by a cell |
phagocytosis | "cell eating" - when solid particles are ingested and phagocytic vesicles are formed |
exocytosis | secretory vesicles move to the plasma membrane and the contents of the vesicle are expelled from the cell |
every three nucleotides is called a __ | triplet code |
a triplet code is a code for an | amino acid |
__ are the building blocks of proteins | amino acids |
2 steps in protein synthesis | transcription
translation |
transcription - | synthesis of mRNA on the basis of sequence of nucleotides in DNA |
translation | the synthesis of a protein at the ribosome in respond to the codons of mRNA |
3 types of RNA | messenger
transfer
ribosomal |
messenger RNA | a copy of the code to make a protein. It travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. |
transfer RNA | carries amino acids to the ribosome so they can be assembled into proteins |
ribosomal RNA | rna that is associated with certain proteins to form ribosomes |
DNA replication occurs during | INTERPHASE |
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that affects ___ | chloride ion channels |
how many types of cystic fibrosis? | 3 |
In about 70% of CF cases, | a defective channel protein fails to reach the plasma membrane from its site of production inside the cell |
in 30% cases | the channel protein is incorporated into the plasma membrane but does not functional normally or ATP binds to the channel protein but the channel does not open |
affected cells of CF___ | produce thick, viscous secretions |
CF affects many cell types, but most profound effects are in the __ & __ | pancrease, lungs |
In the CF pancreas, | thick secretions block the release of digestive enzymes, resulting in an inability to digest certain types of food and sometimes leading to pancreatitis |
In the CF lungs, | thick secretions block airways, making breathing difficult |
x-rays | |
radiograph | |
ultrasound | |
sonogram | ultrasound image |
computed tomographic scan (CT) | |
dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR) | |
digital subtraction angiography (DSA) | |
magnetic resonance imaging | |
positron emission tomographic scan (PET) | |